Signal transducer devices, systems, and methods

ABSTRACT

Various braking devices, systems, and methods are disclosed. In some embodiments, the braking device includes a support element, a block of friction material supported by the support element, at least one piezoceramic sensor supported by the support element and interposed between the block of friction material (and the support element, and a protective element located at the piezoceramic sensor and embedding the latter. The protective element can have one or more layers of resin-based material applied to protect the piezoceramic sensor and direct a predetermined part of the external compression force onto an area of the support element surrounding the piezoceramic sensor. In some embodiments, a signal transduction device is provided and includes at least one piezoceramic sensor supported on a support element and has an integral protective coating having properties of mechanical and temperature resistance.

CROSS-REFERENCE

This application is a divisional application of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 15/279,200, filed Sep. 28, 2016, which is a continuation ofU.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/167,883, filed May 27, 2016, whichare hereby incorporated by reference under 37 CFR 1.57. Also, anyapplications for which a foreign or domestic priority claim isidentified in the Application Data Sheet as filed with the presentapplication are hereby incorporated by reference under 37 CFR 1.57.

BACKGROUND Field

The following disclosure relates to braking devices, systems, andmethods, such as vehicle braking devices having one or more sensors.Some portions of this disclosure relate to signal transduction devicesthat are suitable for operating in harsh physical conditions, such as inthe presence of high mechanical or thermal stresses.

Description of Certain Related Art

Piezoelectric sensors exploit the property of some crystalline materialsof polarizing themselves generating a potential difference when they aresubjected to mechanical deformation and deforming themselves in anelastic way when a current passes through them. Among the most commonapplications that make use of piezoelectric sensors are cooker gasigniters, seismic instruments, acoustic and musical instruments,pressure detectors, time detectors, microphones, sound generators,motion actuators, ultrasonic probes, etc. The use of piezoelectricsensors has spread mainly in areas where high resistance to the thermaland mechanical stresses found in nature is not required.

SUMMARY OF CERTAIN FEATURES

The systems, methods and devices described herein have innovativeaspects, no single one of which is indispensable or solely responsiblefor their desirable attributes. Without limiting the scope of theclaims, some of the advantageous features will now be summarized.

Braking device (e.g., brake pads) with embedded sensors can aid indetecting and/or predicting numerous problems, such as an abnormalconsumption of the brake pads, for example due to the brake pads“touching” the disc even when the brake is not actuated, for example dueto poor alignment of the brake calipers, or rather noise, vibration andunwanted screeching during braking.

Providing braking devices with resilient and reliable sensors can be achallenge. Braking devices can be subjected to high temperatures andpressures during the production process and/or that develop duringbraking. For example, the assembly of the braking device may include theapplication of a very high compression load in order to implement thepermanent joining of the block of friction material to the metallicsupport element. This crushing force may be of such a magnitude thatthere is a risk of compromising the structural integrity andconsequently also the correct operation of sensors located in thebraking device.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a sensorizedbraking device for vehicles that is both reliable and efficient indetecting the presence and/or magnitude of stresses at the interfacewith the element being braked during braking.

Certain embodiments provide a reliable production process for theproduction of a sensorized braking device that is both robust andresistant to high temperatures. This can, for example, increaseflexibility of use of sensorized braking device. For example, certainvariants of the sensorized braking device can be used in applicationsthat are not only for light and industrial vehicles, but also for heavyvehicles (trucks, buses, etc.), such as where the operating temperaturescan exceed 600° C.

Some embodiments provide a method for producing a sensorized brakingdevice for vehicles which ensures that the optimal performance of saidbraking device is maintained over an extended period of time.

In various embodiments, the above-described features, and/or otherfeatures, are achieved by means of a braking device for vehicles. Thebraking device can comprise a support element, a block of frictionmaterial supported by the support element, and at least one piezoceramicsensor supported by the support element and interposed between the blockof friction material and the support element. In some embodiments, thesupport element supports at least one protective element enclosing saidat least one piezoceramic sensor. The protective element can exhibitmechanical properties adapted to maintain said piezoceramic sensor belowits maximum load condition, such as when an external compression forceexceeding 400 kg/cm² is applied to integrate said block of frictionmaterial on said support element. Some embodiments use types ofpiezoelectric sensors other than piezoceramic.

In some configurations, said protective element can be made of anelectrically insulating material. In some configurations, saidprotective element exhibits mechanical properties such as to limit theforce transmitted to the piezoceramic sensor when an externalcompression force is applied to said block of friction material.

In some configurations, said protective element is configured to direct,at least partly, said external compression force onto an area of thesupport element surrounding said at least one piezoceramic sensor.

The protective element can have various features. For example, incertain implementations, the protective element can function as amechanical protection against damage due to handling the braking elementduring the production process, as an electrical insulator for thepiezoceramic sensor, and/or as a limiter and deflector of the forcetransmitted to the piezoceramic sensor.

According to some embodiments, the piezoceramic sensor lies in a raisedarrangement on the support element, and the protective element can bemade up of a half-shell having an internal contact surface uniform withthe external surface of the piezoceramic sensor and a uniform rest baseon said support element area. In some configurations, said protectiveelement is generally dome-shaped. In some configurations, saidprotective element can be made up of a material comprising a resin ormade up of a ceramic material.

In some configurations, said protective element has a thermal shield forsaid at least one piezoceramic sensor. In some configurations, saidthermal shield is provided by a thermally insulating layer of saidprotective element and/or by a thermally insulating element accommodatedinside said protective element.

In some configurations, at least one thermally insulating layer coveringsaid support element is provided, whereon said at least one piezoceramicsensor is arranged.

Some embodiments of this disclosure describe a method for constructing abraking device for vehicles. The braking device can comprise a supportelement, a block of friction material supported by said support element,and at least one piezoceramic sensor interposed between the block offriction material and said support element. The method can includeembedding said at least one piezoceramic sensor in a protective elementlocated at said piezoceramic sensor.

The production process according to the present disclosure can takeadvantage of established non-sensorized braking device technology thatalready exists on the market. The braking device may employ the samematerial used for the block of friction material provided fornon-sensorized braking devices available on the market.

In some embodiments, the forming process for the sensorized brakingdevice according to the present disclosure envisages the same processtemperatures and pressures as those used for known non-sensorizedbraking devices that experience high temperatures and/or pressures, suchas greater that 200° C. and 400 kg/cm² respectively.

Given that the maximum load conditions that piezoceramic sensors canwithstand are well below these pressures, with the present disclosureprotective elements are provided that make the actual application of theestablished technology for non-sensorized braking devices that are onthe market possible, thus increasing the likelihood that the integrityof the sensors, and/or of the overall functionality of the brakingdevice, will be maintained.

In some embodiments, braking device can be vulnerable to temperaturesand respectively to the pressures that such a device is subjected toduring the manufacturing process and/or that develop during braking,such as temperatures and pressure that are higher even than 200° C. and400 kg/cm² respectively. This can results in negative effects in termsof performance, reliability and durability.

Some embodiments provide a sensorized braking device for vehicles thatwithin the use temperature interval and in particular up to usetemperatures of at least 200° C. is able to withstand stresses that arethermal in nature, allows for proper transmission to the piezoelectricsensors of the mechanical stresses to be detected whilst at the sametime adequately protecting its components from excessive mechanicalstresses that may cause damage or lead to malfunction.

Certain implementations provide a sensorized braking device for vehiclesthat is capable of ensuring a stable response of the piezoelectricsensors with the temperature variations in the interval in workingtemperatures.

Some variants provide a sensorized braking device for vehicles that isboth robust and resistant to high temperatures in order to increase itsflexibility of use in applications not only for light and industrialvehicles but also for heavy vehicles (Trucks, Buses, etc.) where theoperating temperatures can exceed 600° C.

These above-described features, and/or other features, can be achievedby means of a braking device for vehicles. The braking device cancomprise a support element supporting a block of friction material, anelectrically insulated electrical circuit, and at least one piezoceramicsensor interposed between the block of friction material and the supportelement. The electrical circuit can be connected to said at least onepiezoceramic sensor so as to pick up an electric response signal emittedby said at least one piezoceramic sensor when said braking device issubjected to an external compression force. The braking device caninclude at least one protective element having one or more layers ofresin-based material applied to protect at least said at least onepiezoceramic sensor. The at least one protective element can beconfigured to direct a predetermined part of said external compressionforce onto an area of the support element surrounding said at least onepiezoceramic sensor. The resin-based material can be selected from amongmaterials having substantially stable mechanical properties in atemperature interval, such as an interval between −40° C. and at least200° C. Various embodiments can be configured to limit or cancel out thevariation in the response signal with the temperature variations towhich said at least one piezoceramic sensor is exposed in saidtemperature interval. Such mechanical properties can include at leastthe elastic modulus and/or shear modulus.

In some configurations said resin-based material is electricallyinsulating. In some configurations said resin-based material iselectrically and thermally insulating.

In some configurations, the thickness of said protective element is notless than the thickness of said piezoceramic sensor. This can aid inproviding adequate mechanical protection and/or adequate thermal andelectrical insulation properties.

By thickness of the piezoceramic sensor is meant its dimension in thedirection that is orthogonal to its resting plate on the supportelement.

In some configurations said resin-based material has a curingtemperature that is below the Curie temperature of the piezoceramicmaterial that constitutes said piezoceramic sensor. The protectionelement can then be applied without risk of damaging the piezoceramicsensor before or after the latter's mechanical and electrical connectionto the electrical circuit.

In some configurations said protective element has mechanical propertiesso as to limit the force transmitted to the piezoceramic sensor when theexternal compression force is applied to said block of frictionmaterial. In some configurations, said protective element is configuredto direct a predetermined part of said external compression force ontoan area of the support element surrounding said at least onepiezoceramic sensor.

The protective element can have various features. For example, in someimplementations, it functions as a mechanical protection against damagedue to handling the braking element during the production process,provides electrical insulation for the piezoceramic sensor, and/orfunctions as a limiter and deflector of the force transmitted to thepiezoceramic sensor.

Choosing a material with mechanical properties that are stable over awide temperature interval allows for a stable response from thepiezoceramic sensors within the same temperature interval.

Some embodiments provide a signal transduction device of thepiezoelectric type capable of operating also under conditions of highthermal and mechanical stress.

Certain embodiments provide a signal transduction device of thepiezoelectric type that is suitable for use in various industrialapplications.

Some variants provide a signal transduction device of the piezoelectrictype that is simple, robust, precise and reliable in operation.

These above-described features, and/or other features, can be achievedby a signal transduction device. The signal transduction device cancomprise at least one piezoceramic sensor supported on a support elementand featuring an integral protective coating having properties ofmechanical and temperature resistance. The integral protective coatingcan be in direct or indirect contact with said support elementperimetrally to said piezoceramic sensor so as to direct a predeterminedpart of an external compression force acting on said piezoceramic sensoronto an area of the support element surrounding said piezoceramicsensor.

The protective coating can be formed from a material comprising a resinor a ceramic material. The protective coating can be thermallyinsulating. The protective coating can be electrically insulating.

The support element can support an electrically insulated electriccircuit upon which said piezoceramic sensor is mounted. A thermallyinsulating layer can be envisaged interposed between said supportelement and said electrical circuit.

Some embodiments of the signal transduction device can be used in anenvironment having a temperature of no less than 200° C. Someembodiments of the signal transduction device can be advantageous in anyapplication involving high temperatures and pressure (at leastpotentially).

The high temperature technology coupled with the screen printingtechnology, sensor, and welding pastes derived from the sensorizedbraking pad technology provides the high temperature resistance to theapplication.

The adoption of specific material for the protective coating canincrease the robustness with respect the pressure application. Forexample, the use of material for the protective coating with an elasticmodulus smaller than those typical of the piezoceramic materials willimply a damping effect lowering the applied forces to the piezoceramicsensor.

An aspect that may be important to consider is that the high loadapplied may require an increase in the dimension of the piezoceramicsensor to withstand to such large applied load while keeping the realapplied load on the piezoceramic sensor well below its mechanicalrupture limit.

In the opposite direction an amplification effect increasing the appliedforces to the piezoceramic sensor will be obtained in cases when aharder material for the protective coating will be used. This will beadvantageous in any case where an amplification is required becauseforces to be measured are too small or piezoceramic sensor sensitivityis not enough to cover the whole range of measured values.

An example application, when a damping effect is required, is a pressuresensor for oil extraction plants, where pressures and temperatures canbe very high. Another example is in the automotive sector, such as in apressure sensor for the injection control of the engines. Here againpressures and temperatures are extremely high. The advantage would be tohave smaller and cheaper sensors but keeping a good sensitivity in therange of pressures to be measured for these specific applications.Another example, when an amplification effect is required, may be in thebiomedical sector where comparable sensitivities can be reached bysmaller pressure sensors with lower costs.

Among the various possible applications, the signal transduction deviceaccording to the present disclosure can preferably be integrated into astrength meter or a linear movement actuator, for example the actuatorof a tool of a machine for hot-working a part, or a vibrator.

This disclosure incorporates by reference the entirety of U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. 2014/0311833, filed Dec. 13, 2013.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Further characteristics and advantages of the present disclosure willbecome clear from the following description of an exemplary non limitingembodiment given purely by way of example and with reference to thedrawings attached, in which:

FIG. 1 schematically shows a perspective view of a braking device.

FIG. 2 shows a perspective view of the braking device of FIG. 1 withoutthe block of friction material.

FIG. 3 shows a plan view of the braking device of FIG. 1.

FIG. 4 shows a section of the brake device along the line 3-3 of FIG. 3.

FIG. 5 shows a plan view of electrodes of the piezoceramic sensor.

FIG. 6 shows a plan view of a terminal of an electrical circuitcomprising contacts to which the electrodes of the piezoceramic sensorare connected.

FIG. 7 shows a response curve linking the force transmitted to thesensor as the ratio between the elastic constants of the block offriction material and the protective element varies.

FIG. 8 shows the sensorized braking device in an overall braking system.

FIG. 9A shows a backend perspective view of the sensorized brakingdevice in a first stage of its manufacturing process.

FIG. 9B shows a list of working steps in the first stage of themanufacturing process.

FIG. 10A shows a frontend perspective view of the sensorized brakingdevice in a second stage of its manufacturing process.

FIG. 10B shows a list of working steps in the second stage of themanufacturing process.

FIG. 11A is a flow chart of a backend manufacturing process of thesensorized braking device.

FIG. 11B is a flow chart of a frontend manufacturing process of thesensorized braking device.

FIG. 12 shows a diagram of the sensor response when no braking isperformed.

FIG. 13 shows a diagram of the sensor response on dynamic brakeapplication.

FIG. 14A shows a schematic view of a “damming” step of a method ofapplication of a protective layer by a Dam & Fill technique.

FIG. 14B shows a schematic view of a “filling” step of the Dam & Filltechnique.

FIG. 14C shows a schematic view of a formed protective element appliedto the piezoelectric sensor by the Dam & Fill technique.

FIG. 15 shows schematically a raised section side view of the brakingdevice.

FIG. 16 shows the variation in the piezoceramic sensor response signalused in testing with a temperature variation of the brake pad, where theprotective element of the piezoceramic sensor consists of a first typeof resin-based material.

FIG. 17 shows the variation in the shear modulus of the first type ofresin-based material used in the tests as a function of temperature.

FIG. 18 shows the variation in the capacitance of the piezoceramicsensor used in the tests as a function of temperature.

FIG. 19 shows the variation in the piezoceramic sensor response signalused in testing as a temperature variation of the brake pad, where theprotective element of the piezoceramic sensor consists of a second typeof resin-based material.

FIG. 20 shows a curve that ties the force experienced by thepiezoceramic sensor as a result of applying an external compressionforce F as the elastic constant of the resin-based material, that formsthe protective element, changes.

FIG. 21 illustrates a section of a signal transduction device. Withreference to the figures a signal transduction device is referenced as awhole with 1.

FIG. 22A shows a schematic view of a “damming” step of a method ofapplication of a protective layer by a Dam & Fill technique.

FIG. 22B shows a schematic view of a “filling” step of the Dam & Filltechnique.

FIG. 22C shows a schematic view of a formed protective element appliedto the piezoelectric sensor by the Dam & Fill technique.

FIG. 23 is a schematic diagram of an active conditioning circuitincluding a charge amplifier.

FIG. 24 shows one embodiment of a passive conditioning circuit for ananalog stage of a signal conditioner.

FIG. 25 shows another embodiment of a passive conditioning circuit foran analog stage of a signal conditioner.

FIG. 26 schematically shows a sensorized brake pad according to oneembodiment.

FIG. 27A is a schematic diagram of one embodiment of an electricalsystem for generating brake pad data.

FIG. 27B is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem for generating brake pad data.

FIG. 27C is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem for generating brake pad data.

FIG. 27D is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem for generating brake pad data.

FIG. 27E is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem for generating brake pad data.

FIG. 27F is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem for generating brake pad data.

FIG. 27G is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem for generating brake pad data.

FIG. 28 shows one embodiment of a braking pad.

FIG. 29 shows one embodiment a portion of a connector and of a cable forthe braking pad of FIG. 28.

FIG. 30 shows one embodiment of a braking pad with a passive analogstage integrated in a cable.

FIGS. 31A and 31B are perspective views of the cable of FIG. 30.

FIG. 32 is a graph of one example of channel voltage amplitude versustime for a braking event.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS

Embodiments of systems, components and methods of assembly andmanufacture will now be described with reference to the accompanyingfigures, wherein like numerals refer to like or similar elementsthroughout. Although several embodiments, examples and illustrations aredisclosed below, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in theart that the inventions described herein extends beyond the specificallydisclosed embodiments, examples and illustrations, and can include otheruses of the inventions and obvious modifications and equivalentsthereof. The terminology used in the description presented herein is notintended to be interpreted in any limited or restrictive manner simplybecause it is being used in conjunction with a detailed description ofcertain specific embodiments of the inventions. In addition, embodimentsof the inventions can comprise several novel features and no singlefeature is solely responsible for its desirable attributes or isessential to practicing the inventions herein described.

Sensorized Braking Devices for Vehicles and Associated Methods

With reference to FIGS. 1-14C, reference number 101 indicates asensorized braking device for vehicles, in the example illustrated abrake pad, that is intended to equip a vehicle braking system.

Here and below specific reference will be made to a braking deviceformed of the brake pad 101, but it is clear that what follows is alsoidentically applicable to the brake shoe of a drum brake.

The brake pad 101 comprises a support element 102, preferably but notnecessarily metallic, and known as a “backplate”, a block of frictionmaterial 103 supported by the element 102, and one or more piezoceramicsensors 104 supported by said support element 102 and interposed betweenthe latter and the block of friction material 103. The piezoceramicsensors 104 are supported in a raised arrangement on the support element102.

In the case of a brake shoe, there could be elements corresponding tothose described for the brake pad 101. Therefore, for a person skilledin the art, the following description is easily transferable to obtainsensorized brake shoes.

As shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, the support element 102 in particular isshaped as a contour shaped flat plate having a first main planar surface105 that is intended in use to face an element to be braked, such as avehicle brake disc, and a second main planar surface 106 that isparallel to the first main planar surface 105.

The block of friction material 103 has in particular a first main planarsurface 107 that is conjugated to the first planar surface 105 of thesupport element 102 and a second planar surface 108 that is parallel tothe first planar surface 107, and intended in use to direct contact withthe element to be braked.

The piezoceramic sensors 104 are able to detect the forces that areexchanged in use during the contact between the pad 101 and the elementto be braked as a result of their inherent ability to emit an electricalsignal when subjected to a mechanical stress.

For this purpose the support element 112 supports an electricallyinsulated electrical circuit 109. As shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, the circuit109 has electrical contacts 110, 111 to which electrodes 114, 115 ofpiezoceramic sensors 104 are connected.

The electrical circuit 109 collects the electrical signal, which isgenerated without the need for an electrical power supply frompiezoceramic sensors 104, when they are subjected to a mechanical stressin the direction of polarization.

The electrical signal emitted by the piezoceramic sensors 104 andcollected by the electrical circuit 109 can either be processed in realtime or at a later point in time.

The piezoceramic sensors 104 are made of piezoceramic materials with aCurie temperature greater than 200° C. and are formed of a preferablycylindrical body that is polarized in the direction of its axis anddelimited by a pair of opposite flat faces 112 and 113 that are arrangedin use parallel to the main planar surfaces 105, 106 of the supportelement 102.

Preferably only one of the faces 112, 113, in particular the one facingthe electrical circuit 109, has both of the electrical signal samplingelectrodes 114, 115.

The electrical circuit 109 has branches that are suitably shaped inorder to arrange the piezoceramic sensors 104 in discrete positions onthe support element 102 and is also provided with an integratedelectrical connector at the edge of the support element 102.

In addition to the piezoceramic sensors, which are essentially pressuresensors, one or more temperature sensors and/or one or more shear forcesensors that are electrically connected to the electrical circuit 109may also optionally be integrated on the support element 102. Theelectrically insulated electrical circuit 109 is preferably screenprinted and applied directly onto the support element 102.

All of the sensors integrated into the support element 102 are installedonto the electrically insulated electrical circuit 109 from the side ofthe latter that faces the block of friction material 103. The sensorsthat are thus integrated into the support element 102 are highly capableof measuring the forces acting on the braking device during braking orin general during the running of the vehicle.

Specific examples of piezoceramic sensors 104 that may be used are, forinstance, PIC 255 (Manufacturer: PI Ceramic), PIC 300 (Manufacturer: PICeramic), PIC 181 (Manufacturer: PI Ceramic), PIC 050 (Manufacturer: PICeramic), TRS BT200 (Manufacturer: TRS Ceramics), PZT5A1 (Manufacturer:Morgan Advanced Ceramic), PZT5A3 (Manufacturer: Morgan AdvancedCeramic).

The arrangement for piezoceramic sensors 104 is dependent on what it isintended to be measured. FIG. 12 illustrates the sensor response signalversus time when no brake application is performed. FIG. 13 illustratesthe sensor response signal versus time when a dynamic brakingapplication is performed.

If the purpose is to measure the pressure and noise distribution alongthe brake pad 101, the preferred but not restrictive configuration isthe one shown where four pressure sensors (normal force) are placed onthe four corners of the backplate, while a shear sensor is placed aboutin the center of mass of the braking pad 101.

However, in case the pressure or noise distribution is not a concern,then it is preferable to place shear and force sensor in the nearby ofthe center of mass of the braking pad 1.

As illustrated in FIG. 8, a damping layer 1101 can be provided that isinterposed between the block of friction material 103 and the supportelement 102.

The damping layer 1101, if provided, has in particular a first mainsurface that is conjugated to the first planar surface 105 of thesupport element 102 and a second surface that is conjugated to the firstplanar surface 107 of the block of friction material 103.

Damping layer 1101 it mostly made by phenolic resin material.

In some configurations each piezoceramic sensor 104 is embedded within acorresponding protective element 116.

The protective element 116 is located on the support element 102 at theposition of the piezoceramic sensor 104.

For the electrical insulation of the piezoceramic sensor 104 theprotective element 116 can be made of electrically insulating material.

The protective element 116 has, as we shall see, mechanical properties,and in particular an elastic modulus that has been carefully chosen inorder to limit the force transmitted to the piezoceramic sensor 104 whenan external compression force is applied to the block of frictionmaterial 103.

The protective element 116 is in particular configured in order todirect at least part of the external compression force to an area of thesupport element 102 surrounding the piezoceramic sensor 104 itself.

As we shall see below, a considerable external compression force is infact generated during the hot pressing of the block of friction materialonto the support 102.

Preferably all of the other sensors and possibly also other componentsof the electrical circuit 109 have a respective protective element ofthe same type as that described above.

The protective element 116 completely embeds the piezoceramic sensor 104and can be made up of a half-shell having an internal direct or indirectcontact surface 117 uniform with the external surface of thepiezoceramic sensor 104 and a uniform direct or indirect rest base 118on said support element 102.

The protective element 116 preferably is generally dome-shaped.

The protective element 116 is preferably made of a resin-based material,for example the material for the protective element is comprised ofpolyimide resins, epoxy resins (loaded or not), Bismaleimide resins andCyanate-Ester resins.

The protective element can, for example, be made by means of thedripping of material at a standard pressure and moderate temperatures(usually less than 200° C.) prior to forming the block of frictionmaterial 103.

With reference to FIGS. 14A, 14B and 14C, a method to apply theprotective element 116 to the piezoelectric sensor is illustrated insteps 170, 172, 174. The resin for the protective element 116 isdeposited by a dispenser for resin material, preferably with anautomatic dispenser for resins with a low level of thixotropy Dam & Filltechnique. As shown in step 170 of FIG. 14A, a ring of a sacrificialthixotropy resin can be made first around the sensor in order to build akind of dam to enclose the resin used for making the protective element116. Then, the material for protective element 116 is used to fill upthe dam in order to cover the sensor, as shown in step 172 of FIG. 14B.Multiple layers of material may be overlaid to form the protectiveelement 116, as shown in step 174 of FIG. 14C.

Ceramic materials that are much harder than resins and suitable fortemperatures above 350° C. may however also be used for the protectiveelement.

Thanks to the provision of protective elements within the supportelement 1102 at those points where the sensors are actually placed, anylimitation associated with effectively implementing the existing formingtechnology is substantially resolved.

In fact, thanks to the protective elements, the load of the forcesactually experienced by the sensors during the production of the brakingdevice or when the braking device is in operation is reduced, providedthat the mechanical properties of the protective elements themselves aresuitably chosen.

FIG. 8 shows the overall system 1100 embodying the braking device 101.This system 1100 comprises a caliper 1102 and disk shaped rotor 1103rotating about an axis of the wheel of the vehicle. Two opposite brakingdevices 101 are movable by a corresponding piston 1104 so that frictionmaterial 103 thereof may engage or disengage the opposite sides of thedisk shaped rotor 1103. Signals coming from both braking devices 101 aretransmitted via cables 1105 to a signal conditioning device comprisinganalog front ends 1106 and digitalization and processing unit 1107.

Production of the braking device in particular envisages the applicationof a notable external compression force F upon the block of frictionmaterial 103 in order to integrate it with the support element 102.

We refer to the load situation acting upon a piezoceramic sensor 104.The protective element 116 experiences a force whose resultant F′ isdifferent from the compression force F applied to the block of frictionmaterial 103. Such a resultant force F′ is also transmitted to thepiezoceramic sensor 104 which experiences a final force F_(p) which ingeneral is also different from the force F′ but also linked to it. F_(p)is the force that induces the electrical signal that is effectivelymeasured by the piezoceramic sensor.

We assume that the transfer of the external compression force F takesplace from the surface of the block of friction material 103 to theunderlying layers without appreciable tangential deformations, in otherwords, we assume that the block of friction material 103 issubstantially rigid in the longitudinal direction.

In the model it is also assumed that the friction material and theprotective element are represented in the mechanical model by springswith the elastic constants k and k′ respectively, and that the lineardimensions of the spring relating to the block of friction material arethe same as the block of friction material itself in the regions outsideand within the area of application of the protective element.

Supposing therefore a linear elastic behavior of the materials, thenHooke's law is valid, according to which:

F=kx

F′=k′x′

F _(p) =k _(p) x _(p)

where x, x′ and respectively x_(p) represent the deformation in thedirection of compression, k, k′ and respectively k_(p) the elasticconstant.

It can be shown that:

F=2F/(1+k/k′)

F _(p)=4F/(1+k′/k _(p))(1+k/k′)

The force F_(p) as experienced by the piezoceramic sensor 104 istherefore linked but not equal to the force F originally applied to theblock of friction material 103. The force F_(p) attenuation factordepends upon the choice of the ratios k′/k_(p) and k/k′ and can beadjusted, with k and k_(p) being equal, by increasing or decreasing theelastic constant k′.

It follows that once the block of friction material and the piezoceramicsensor are defined, which normally have quite strong limitations fromthe point of view of the variation in their mechanical properties aswell as in terms of the requirements regarding their physicalproperties, the choice of the optimum values for k′, or the mechanicalproperties of the protective element, then becomes crucial in order tooptimize the transfer of forces.

By way of a significant as well as explanatory example, we will considerthe result from the model assuming realistic values for k and k_(p), inparticular produced from the measurements of the elastic constants forthe block of friction material and the piezoceramic sensor. The constantk′ will instead be regarded as a parametric variable to be chosen inorder to optimize the response of the piezoceramic sensor. Suppose thenthat k_(p)=10″ N/m=10¹¹ N/m and k=10¹⁰ N/m. These values of k_(p) and kfor the block of friction material and the piezoceramic sensor arevalues that are close to reality. In this case the relationship betweenF_(p)/F depends only upon k′. FIG. 6 shows the response curve F_(p)/F asa function of k/k′ while considering the above values of k_(p) and k. Itis clear that there is an optimal value regarding the ratio between themechanical constants k/k′ that optimizes the response of piezoceramicsensor. Therefore, once the piezoceramic sensor and the block offriction material are fixed, then the protective element should bechosen carefully. For example, choosing resins that are too softcompared to the optimal value at the maximum point of the response curvewill determine a weak coupling which will lead to the forces beingtransferred inefficiently, while choosing resins that are too hard,again compared to the optimal value at the maximum point of the responsecurve, will lead to the deformation being transferred to thepiezoceramic sensor inefficiently. With regard to FIG. 7 it should benoted that a logarithmic scale has been applied to the abscissa andordinate axes, with the result that, away from the maximum point of theresponse curve, an order of magnitude variation in the ratio of theelastic constants will have similar results also on the forces measuredat the location of the piezoceramic sensor. Only by keeping the valuesof the elastic constants near the optimum value at the maximum point ofthe response curve will efficient transfer be maintained. This meansthat also the thermo-mechanical properties have to be selected with carein order to avoid, as a result of softening or hardening of themechanical properties between the materials employed, loss of efficiencyas the temperature changes. Working in the vicinity of the maximum pointof the response curve results then in a further improvement, namely thatthe stability of the response is greatly superior also in the case ofvariations in the thermo-mechanical properties, even at large intervals.

Therefore, by suitably selecting the mechanical properties of thematerial composing the protective element (in the sense of softening orhardening), it is possible to maintain the load experienced by thepiezoceramic sensors well below the maximum load bearable by this classof sensors during both the braking device production process and normaloperation of the braking device.

For the purposes of the application under consideration, it hasnevertheless been found convenient, for predetermined values of k_(p)and k, to choose k′ such that F_(p)/F is not less than 0.01, preferablynot less than 0.1.

To be compatible with many applications, including vehicle industry, themechanical properties of the protective element shall not be affected bytemperature in a wide range of temperatures. Indeed a change inmechanical properties may occur if a material undergoes to a phasetransition at a certain temperature. In this connection a material forthe protective element is selected among materials having a transitionphase at a temperature not lower than 150° C.

The protective element 116 has a thermal shield 119 for the piezoceramicsensor 104. The thermal shield 119 can be provided by a thermallyinsulating element that is accommodated within the protective element116 and/or at least one thermally insulating layer which forms part of,or that itself constitutes, the protective element 116.

The thermal shield 119 thermally shields the piezoceramic sensor 104from the heat coming from the block of friction material 103 or from thebrake caliper such that the piezoceramic sensor 104 can function underless onerous operating conditions from the point of view of temperatureduring heavy braking. Various materials can be used for such purposessuch as the so-called thermal barrier (TBC) materials, or else Yttria orMagnesium stabilized Zirconia in the form of mastics, coatings withceramic compounds or special paints.

The support element 102 is preferably covered with at least onethermally insulating layer 120 upon which the piezoceramic sensors 104are arranged. The thermally insulating layer 120, if provided, inparticular has a first main planar surface that is conjugated to thefirst planar surface 105 of the support element 102 and a second planarsurface that is parallel to the first planar surface upon which thepiezoceramic sensors 104 are arranged.

In fact, in this way the electrically insulated electrical circuit 109,the sensors and the connector are not in direct contact with the supportelement 102, the contact being mediated by the thermal barrier layer 120which, being subjected to a thermal gradient through its thickness,causes a significant reduction in the temperature actually experiencedby the electrically insulated electrical circuit 109, the sensors andthe connector.

In order to achieve good thermal insulation even over long periods oftime, it is also appropriate to envisage areas featuring very highthermal conductivity around the thermally shielded elements which aredesigned to create preferential channels for the thermal dissipationproduced during braking.

As a general rule, heat dissipation areas should be as wide as possible.This can aid in avoiding heat accumulation and/or the so called “OvenEffect” of inducing a temperature increase in the backplate instead of atemperature lowering due to heat accumulation. That means that, apartfrom the areas beneath the screen printing or few millimeters aroundthem, the metal of the backplate should be left to come in contact withthe friction material, or the damping layer is present and leaves aconsistent portion of the backplate surface free to heat exchange.

By way of example, these areas may consist of gaps in the thermalbarrier layer 120 that are either empty or filled with thermallyconductive material. Preferably, the thermal barrier layer 120 has thesame shape and dimensions as the electrical circuit 109, which in turnhas a branched structure, such that the thermal dissipation channels areachieved by means of the spaces that are present between the branches.Typical materials usable for thermal insulating layers 120 are forinstance YSZ (Yittria Stabilized Zirconia), Mullite(Al_(4+2x)Si_(2-2x)O_(10-x)), α-phase Al₂O₃ in conjunction with YSZ,CeO₂+YSZ, Rare-earth zirconates like La₂Zr₂O₇, Rare earth oxides likeLa₂O₃, Nb₂O₅, Pr₂O₃, CeO₂, Metal-Glass Composites.

Indicatively, but not restrictively the brake pad 101 may have followingsizing of its components: piezoceramic sensor 104 may be typically 1 mmthick; protective element 116 may typically have a maximum thickness of2 mm, 1 mm above the piezoceramic sensor 104 and 2 mm around it; dampinglayer 1101 may be typically 2-3 mm thick; thermal insulating layer 120may typically have thickness well below 1 mm and 100 μm are enough toensure a sufficient thermal insulation.

FIGS. 9A to 11B illustrate two-stages of the manufacturing process ofthe sensorized braking device. FIG. 9A shows a first stage or backend ofthe manufacturing process for forming layers and applying the componentsonto the support element 102. FIG. 9B shows a list 130 of working stepsof the backend manufacturing process. FIG. 11A shows a flow chart 150 ofthe backend manufacturing process. FIG. 10A shows a second stage of themanufacturing process for applying the friction material 103 onto thesupport element 102. FIG. 10B shows a list 140 of working steps in thesecond stage of the manufacturing process. FIG. 11B is a flow chart 160of an example of the frontend manufacturing process.

In some embodiments, the braking device construction method is asfollows. With reference to FIGS. 9A and 9B, the thermally insulatinglayer 120 is initially applied, if required, to the support element 102.The thermally insulating layer 120 is integrated directly onto the mainplanar surface of the support element 102 which in use is designed toface the element to be braked (which is not illustrated for the sake ofsimplicity), for example the brake disk or drum of a vehicle. Theelectrically insulated electrical circuit 109 can be integrated with thesupport element 102. The electrically insulated electrical circuit 109is preferably constructed by means of the screen printing technique.

A lower screen printed layer 9A made of an electrically insulatingmaterial is first deposited onto the electrically insulating layer 120,if required, or else directly onto the support element 102, anintermediate screen printed layer 9B made of an electrically conductivematerial is then deposited onto the lower screen printed layer 9B, thusdefining the actual electrical circuit itself, an upper screen printedlayer 9C made of an electrically insulating material is then depositedonto the intermediate screen printed layer 9C which leaves the contacts110, 111 uncovered for the electrical connection of the sensors 104.

The insulating layers 9A, 9C consist, for example, of a base made ofalumina/graphite particles (or a silicate matrix) which are thenimmersed in a matrix of a polymeric nature (preferably polyimide), whilethe conductive layer 9B consists of silver or palladium screen printingpastes.

The sensors are then integrated, being electrically and mechanicallyconnected to the electrical contacts 110, 111 which are located at theend of each branch of the electric circuit 109.

Preferably, as previously mentioned, a special configuration for theelectrodes 114, 115 accommodated on a single face of the piezoceramicsensor 104 is used. Naturally this determines the envisaging of aconfiguration that is suitable for the contacts formed on the electricalcircuit 109. This particular solution avoids the need to make use ofbonding when connecting the electrodes to the contacts.

The piezoceramic sensor 104 is therefore permanently connected by meansof its two electrodes to the respective contacts by means of a layer 125composed of a welding paste that is electrically conductive at hightemperatures. In practical terms, once the electrical circuit 109 hasbeen formed, said high temperature welding paste layer is applied in thearea of the contacts and/or of the electrodes, after which the sensor ispositioned by matching its two electrodes with the counterpart contactsprovided on the electrical circuit 109. Finally the assembly is curedtypically at around 200° C. depending upon and in accordance with thespecifications of the welding paste used, which is preferably composedof silver as the base element of the electrically conductive component.In principle, depending upon the choice of welding paste, temperaturesin the order of 800° C. can be reached, thus making the processcompatible with high temperature applications such as those for heavyvehicles for example.

At this point the sensors are covered with the related protectiveelements 116 in the manner previously described above. Above theelectrical circuit 109 and the sensors covered in this manner, the blockof friction material 103 is then formed by hot pressing, within thethickness of which the covered sensors are at least partially embedded.Before pressing the block of friction material 103 the damping layer1101, if required, is accommodated.

In conclusion, the braking device according to the present disclosure ismore reliable and features an improved operating interval during boththe production process and the use, and is therefore also compatiblewith many applications, including heavy duty applications, such as thosein the heavy vehicle industry.

The choice regarding the mechanical properties of the protective elementis to be made whilst taking into consideration the maximum loads thatcan be applied during normal operation or during the production processin order to ensure the integrity of the sensors with respect to thestresses they are subjected to, especially during the production processof the braking device.

The protective element can also be functionalized in a way to include athermal shield so as to shield the sensor from excessive temperature inorder to widen the operating temperature interval of the braking device.

The thermal shield can be further improved by integrating within thesupport element, on the side facing the block of friction material, afurther layer of thermally shielding material in such a way that a formof thermally insulated pocket is created within which both the sensorsand the electrical circuit to which the sensors are connected, areenclosed. Around this pocket it is necessary to include large areas ofhigh thermal conductivity materials in order to leave some low thermalimpedance paths that will dissipate the heat efficiently and thereforeleave the sensors and the electrical circuit at lower temperatures andfor longer.

Finally, a layer composed of a high temperature welding paste has beenprovided for permanently welding the electrodes of the sensors to thecontacts of the electrical circuit by means of a curing process which,being performed at a low temperature and at a standard pressure, isabsolutely safe as regards the integrity of the piezoceramic sensors,but that once completed allows operating temperatures to be achievedthat are above the majority of the Curie temperatures of almost allpiezoceramic materials.

Additional Discussion Regarding Braking Device for Vehicles

With reference to FIGS. 15-20, reference numeral 201 indicates asensorized braking device for vehicles as a whole, in the exampleillustrated a brake pad, that is intended to equip a vehicle brakingsystem, which is known and not illustrated for the sake of simplicity.

Here and below specific reference will be made to a braking deviceformed of the brake pad 201, but it is clear that what follows is alsoidentically applicable to the brake shoe of a drum brake.

As illustrated in FIG. 15, the brake pad 201 comprises a support element202, preferably but not necessarily metallic, and known as a“backplate”, a block of friction material 203 supported by the element202, and one or more piezoceramic sensors 204 supported by the supportelement 202 and interposed between the latter and the block of frictionmaterial 203.

The piezoceramic sensors 204 are supported in a raised arrangement onthe support element 202. In the case of a brake shoe, there could beelements corresponding to those described for the brake pad 201;therefore, for a person skilled in the art, the following description iseasily transferable so that sensorized brake shoes can be constructed.

The support element 202 in particular is shaped like a flat plate havinga first main planar surface 205 that is intended in use to face anelement to be braked, such as a vehicle brake disc, and a second planarmain surface 206 that is parallel to the first main planar surface 205.

The block of friction material 203 has in particular a first main planarsurface 207 that is conjugated to the first planar surface 205 of thesupport element 202 and a second planar surface 208 that is parallel tothe first planar surface 207, and intended in use for direct contactwith the element to be braked.

The piezoceramic sensors 204 are able to detect the forces that areexchanged in use during the contact between the pad 201 and the elementto be braked as a result of their inherent ability to emit an electricalsignal when subjected to a mechanical stress.

For this purpose the support element 202 supports an electricallyinsulated electrical circuit 209 having electrical contacts to which theelectrodes of piezoceramic sensors 204 are connected.

The electrical circuit 209 collects the electrical signal, which isgenerated without the need for an electrical power supply frompiezoceramic sensors 204, when they are subjected to a mechanical stressin the direction of polarization. The electrical signal emitted by thepiezoceramic sensors 204 and collected by the electrical circuit 209 caneither be processed in real time or at a later point in time.

The piezoceramic sensors 204 can be made of piezoceramic materials witha Curie temperature greater than 200° C. and are formed of a preferablycylindrical body that is polarized in the direction of its axis anddelimited by a pair of opposite flat faces 212 and 213 that are arrangedin use parallel to the main planar surfaces 205, 206 of the supportelement 202.

Preferably one of the faces 212, 213, in particular the one facing theelectrical circuit 209, presents both of the electrical signal pick upelectrodes. The electrical circuit 209 can have branches (not shown)that are suitably shaped in order to arrange the piezoceramic sensors204 in discrete positions on the support element 202 and is alsoprovided with an electrical connector (not shown) integrated at the edgeof the support element 202.

In addition to the piezoceramic sensors (which are essentially pressuresensors), and/or in place of, one or more temperature sensors and/or oneor more shear force sensors that are electrically connected to theelectrical circuit 209 may be integrated on the support element 202. Theelectrically insulated electrical circuit 209 is preferably screenprinted and applied directly onto the support element 202.

All of the sensors integrated into the support element 202 are installedonto the electrically insulated electrical circuit 209 from the side ofthe latter that faces the block of friction material 203. The sensorsthat are thus integrated into the support element 202 are highly capableof measuring the forces acting on the braking device during braking orin general during the running of the vehicle.

A damping layer (not shown) can be provided that is interposed betweenthe block of friction material 3 and the support element 202. Thedamping layer, if provided, has in particular a first main surface thatis conjugated to the first planar surface 205 of the support element 202and a second surface that is conjugated to the first planar surface 207of the block of friction material 203.

In some configurations each piezoceramic sensor 204 is embedded within acorresponding protective element 216. The protective element 216 iscomprised of one or more layers of resin-based material selected frommaterials having substantially stable mechanical properties in atemperature interval comprised between −40° C. and at least 200° C., soas to limit or cancel out the variation in the response signal with thetemperature variations to which the piezoceramic sensor 204 is exposedin said temperature interval.

The expression “fairly stable” means, with reference to a variablemagnitude, a maximum value of 30% and preferably not greater than 20% ofits minimum value within the temperature interval of reference.

The protective element 216 is located on the support element 202 at thepiezoceramic sensor 204. For the electrical insulation of thepiezoceramic sensor 204 the protective element 216 can be made ofelectrically insulating material. The protective element 216 ispreferably made from a material that is also thermally insulating.

In particular, but not necessarily, at least one layer of material ofthe protective element 216 can be electrically and thermally insulating,or else at least one electrically insulating layer and at least onethermally insulating layer could be envisaged.

The protective element 216 has, as we shall see, mechanical properties,and in particular the elastic modulus, which have been carefully chosenin order to limit the force transmitted to the piezoceramic sensor 204when an external compression force is applied to the block of frictionmaterial 203.

The protective element 216 is in particular configured in order todirect at least part of the external compression force to an area of thesupport element 202 surrounding the piezoceramic sensor 204 itself.

Preferably, all of the other sensors and possibly also other componentsof the electrical circuit 209 have a respective protective element ofthe same type as that described above.

The protective element 216 completely embeds the piezoceramic sensor 204and can be made up of a half-shell having an internal direct or indirectcontact surface 217 uniform with the external surface of thepiezoceramic sensor 204 and a uniform direct or indirect rest base 218on said support element 202. The protective element 216 preferably isgenerally dome-shaped.

The resin that constitutes the protective element 216 is preferably apolyimide resin, or an epoxy resin, or a Bismaleimide resin, or aCyanate-Ester resin or a mixture therein. These resins can be loadedwith reinforcing particles, in particular a ceramic and/or metallicmaterial, such as ceramic particles of alumina and/or metallic particlesof aluminum.

In order to evaluate the progress in the response of the piezoceramicsensor as the operating temperature of brake pads changes, the followingis the result of tests carried out on batches of brake pads that differin the resin-based material that forms the protective element of thepiezoceramic sensor.

Tests on the First Batch of Brake Pads

The tests were performed on standard Dyno benches for NVH anddynamometric measurements. In particular, the tests were conducted on afirst batch of brake pads, in which the protective element of thepiezoceramic sensor consists of an epoxy resin-based materialcommercially known by the name Hysol™ 9492 manufactured by Loctite™.

This epoxy resin-based material includes a first component of epoxyresin loaded with metallic particles of aluminum and ceramic particlesof alumina, and a second amide-based component acting as a cross-linkingcatalyst.

The tests consisted of bench tests performed at different values ofpressure from 5 to 40 Bar and with the temperature of the brake discbeing controlled within the interval of 50 to 300° C.

The procedure used was as follows: 88 braking applications were madefrom 50 km/h to 2 km/h as per the following table.

Braking applications Braking pressure [Bar] Brake disc temperature [°C.] 1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 5-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 50 1-1-1-1-1-1-1-15-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 100 1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 5-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 1501-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 5-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 200 1-1-1-1-1-1-1-15-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 250 1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 5-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 3001-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 5-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 250 1-1-1-1-1-1-1-15-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 200 1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 5-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 1501-1-1-1-1-1-1-1 5-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 100 1-1-1-1-1-1-1-15-10-15-20-25-30-35-40 50

Regarding the temperature of the brake pad, its temperature is normallyapproximately half that of the brake disc.

FIG. 16 shows the progress in the piezoceramic sensor response signal asthe temperature of the brake pad changes and at a braking pressure valueof 20 Bar. Similar results are obtained for the other values of brakingpressure.

During the test a clear attenuation in the signal was observed alreadyat low/moderate temperatures. For example, in FIG. 16 the rapid decaycan be seen at around 75-80° C. For the signal measured the amplitude ofthe second peak is represented (the one at the end of the braking) andreported according to the temperature of the brake pad as measured by athermocouple on-board the brake pad. The choice of the second peak islinked only to the fact that being tied to the release of the pressurewithin the hydraulic circuit, it turns out to be more repeatable andthus provides results that are less affected by experimental errors.

The signal attenuation in FIG. 16 is mainly due to the material used forthe protective element. In this regard, in FIG. 17 the variation in themechanical characteristic (shear modulus) of the material used for theprotective element can be seen within the temperature interval ofinterest.

Along with the signal attenuation there is also a secondary contributiondue to the variation in the capacitance of the piezoceramic sensor (FIG.18), though its impact is much lower than that due to the material usedfor the protective element. In fact the strong correlation is clearbetween the decline in the response of the brake pad between 70 and 100°C., and the corresponding decline in the mechanical properties of thematerial of the protective element. The dependence of the piezoceramicsensor on temperature only provides a small contribution, the electricaland mechanical characteristic of the piezoceramic sensor beingapproximately constant within the interval comprised between 70 and 100°C., while the change is practically linear and modest up to temperaturesnear to the Curie temperature of the piezoceramic sensor.

The conclusion of this test is that with the material used for theprotective element the maximum obtainable temperatures that do not causeexcessive losses in the signal from the sensor are approximately 70-85°C. Clearly, this temperature interval, which corresponds to temperaturesat brake disc of 170° C. or so, is unacceptable.

FIG. 19 shows a piezoceramic sensor response versus temperature wherethe protective element of the piezoceramic sensor consists of a secondtype of resin-based material. As illustrated, signal loss occurs athigher temperatures than the material illustrated in FIG. 16 which maybe suitable for higher temperatures applications.

Tests on the Second Batch of Brake Pads

Further tests were performed using for the protective element an epoxyresin-based material commercially known as Duralco™ 4703 produced byCotronics™. This material differs from the previous material by way ofthe concentration of reinforcement particles within the epoxy resin andthe provision of specific functional groups within the epoxy chains.

The tests were performed on standard Dyno benches for NVH anddynamometric measurements.

The tests consisted of bench tests performed at different values ofpressure from 10 to 40 Bar and with the temperature of the brake discbeing controlled within the interval 50 to 500° C.

The procedure used was as follows: braking applications were made from50 km/h to 2 km/h as per the following table.

Braking applications Pressure (Bar) Brake disc temperature [° C.] 200 2050 10-10-10-10 10-20-30-40 50 10-10-10-10 10-20-30-40 100 10-10-10-1010-20-30-40 150 5-5-5-5 10-20-30-40 200 5-5-5-5 10-20-30-40 250 5-5-5-510-20-30-40 300 1-1-1-1 10-20-30-40 350 1-1-1-1 10-20-30-40 400 1-1-1-110-20-30-40 450 1-1-1-1 10-20-30-40 500 200 20 50

Below we provide an explanation of how this occurs.

Let us assume the application of an external compression force F uponthe friction material 203.

We refer to the stress situation acting upon a piezoceramic sensor 204.

The protective element 216 experiences a force whose resultant F′ isdifferent from the compression force F applied to the block of frictionmaterial 203.

Such a resultant force F′ is also transmitted to the piezoceramic sensor204 which experiences a final force F_(p) which in general is alsodifferent from the force F′ but also linked to it. F_(p) is the forcethat induces the electrical signal that is effectively measured by thepiezoceramic sensor.

We assume that the transfer of the external compression force F takesplace from the surface of the block of friction material 203 to theunderlying layers without appreciable tangential deformations, in otherwords, we assume that the block of friction material 3 is substantiallyrigid in the longitudinal direction.

In the model it is also assumed that the friction material and theprotective element are represented in the mechanical model by springswith the elastic constants k and k′ respectively, and that the lineardimensions of the spring relating to the block of friction material arethe same as the block of friction material itself in the regions outsideand within the area of application of the protective element.

Supposing therefore a linear elastic behavior of the materials, thenHooke's law is valid, according to which:

F=kx

F′=k′x′

F _(p) =k _(p) x _(p)

where x, x′ and respectively x_(p) represent the deformation in thedirection of compression, k, k′ and respectively k_(p) the elasticconstant.

It can be shown that:

F′=2F/(1+k/k′)

F _(p)=4F/(1+k′+k _(p))(1+k/k′)

The force F_(p) as experienced by the piezoceramic sensor 204 istherefore linked but not equal to the force F originally applied to theblock of friction material 203. The force F_(p) attenuation factordepends upon the choice of the ratios k′/k_(p) and k/k′ and can beadjusted, with k and k_(p) being equal, by increasing or decreasing theelastic constant k′.

It follows that once the block of friction material and the piezoceramicsensor are defined, which normally have quite strong limitations fromthe point of view of the variation in their mechanical properties aswell as in terms of the requirements regarding their physicalproperties, the choice of the optimum values for k′, or the mechanicalproperties of the protective element, then becomes crucial in order tooptimize the transfer of forces.

By way of a significant as well as explanatory example, we will considerthe result from the model assuming realistic values for k and k_(p), inparticular taken from the measurements of the elastic constants for theblock of friction material and the piezoceramic sensor. The constant k′will instead be considered as a parametric variable to be chosen inorder to optimize the response of the piezoceramic sensor. Suppose thenthat k_(p)=10″ N/m=10¹¹ N/m and k=10¹⁰ N/m. These values of k_(p) and kfor the block of friction material and the piezoceramic sensor arevalues that are close to reality. In this case the relationship forF_(p)/F depends only upon k′. FIG. 20 shows the response curve F_(p)/Fas a function of k/k′ while considering the above values of k_(p) and k.It is clear that there is an optimal value regarding the ratio betweenthe mechanical constants k/k′ that optimizes the response ofpiezoceramic sensor. Therefore, once the piezoceramic sensor and theblock of friction material are fixed, then the protective element shouldbe chosen carefully. For example, choosing materials that are too softcompared to the optimal value at the maximum point of the response curvewill determine a weak coupling which will lead to the forces beingtransferred inefficiently, while choosing materials that are too hard,again with respect to the optimal value at the maximum point of theresponse curve, will lead to the deformation being transferred to thepiezoceramic sensor inefficiently. With regard to FIG. 20 it should benoted that a logarithmic scale has been applied to the abscissa andordinate axes, with the result that, away from the maximum point of theresponse curve, an order of magnitude variation in the ratio of theelastic constants will have similar results also on the forces measuredat the location of the piezoceramic sensor. Only by keeping the valuesof the elastic constants near the optimum value at the maximum point ofthe response curve will efficient transfer be maintained. This meansthat also the thermo-mechanical properties have to be selected with carein order to avoid, as a result of softening or hardening of themechanical properties between the materials employed, loss of efficiencyas a temperature variation. Working in the vicinity of the maximum pointof the response curve results then in a further clear advantage, namelythat the stability of the response is greatly superior also in the caseof variations in the thermo-mechanical properties, even at largeintervals.

Therefore, by suitably selecting the mechanical properties of thematerial composing the protective element (in the sense of softening orhardening), it is possible to maintain the load experienced by thepiezoceramic sensors well below the maximum load bearable by this classof sensors during both the braking device production process and normaloperation of the braking device.

For the purposes of the application under consideration, it hasnevertheless been found convenient, for predetermined values of k_(p)and k, to choose k′ such that F_(p)/F is not less than 0.01.

This means that also the thermo-mechanical properties have to beselected with care in order to avoid, as a result of softening orhardening of the mechanical properties between the materials employed,loss of efficiency as a temperature variation. Working in the vicinityof the maximum point becomes then a further clear advantage, namely thatthe stability of the response is greatly higher also in the case ofvariations in the thermo-mechanical properties, even at large intervals(even up to 200% without significant variations in said maximum point).

With reference to the tests carried out, the predictions of the simplemechanical model described above are accurate.

In fact, at low temperatures the ratio k/k′ for the first type ofmaterial adopted is close to 30, and involves a transmission efficiencyof 10% which is very close to that which was actually measured. At hightemperatures the phase transition of the material above 90° C. induces achange in the elastic constant of about a factor 5. Given that we arewithin the region of linear behavior, the model predicts a correspondingcollapse in the response of the sensor by a factor 6, which is furtherreduced as the temperature increases up to a further factor 10 i.e. upto an order of magnitude less, i.e. it provides an increase inefficiency of up to 1-2%, which is effectively what has been observed.

Unlike the second type of material that has a ratio k/k′ close to 10,i.e. closer to the maximum and in fact exhibits an efficiency of 30%, itsuffers smaller variations, also in temperature, and only at highervalues.

In conclusion, since the friction materials and the piezoceramicmaterials have reasonably stable mechanical properties within very widetemperature intervals, the choice of the material for the protectionelement should be made whilst applying logic that is based upon thegraph of FIG. 20. This means that the elastic constant for the materialis chosen to be as close as possible to the maximum point of the graphof FIG. 20. This is in order to achieve the maximum response from thepiezoceramic sensor with the greatest possible stability in the signalscoming from the piezoceramic sensor also as a result of moderatereciprocal variations between the elastic constants of the materials.

Signal Transduction Devices

FIG. 21 illustrates a signal transduction device 301 comprising a flatplate-like support element 302 and one or more piezoceramic sensors 304supported by the support element 302. In the case shown and belowreference will be made, without limitation, to cases in which there willbe a single piezoceramic sensor 304.

The piezoceramic sensor 304 is supported in a raised arrangement on thesupport element 302. The support element 302 supports an electricallyisolated electric circuit 309 that has electrical contacts that areconnected to the electrodes of the piezoceramic sensor 304.

The piezoceramic sensor 304 can be made of piezoceramic materials with aCurie temperature greater than 200° C., and can be formed of apreferably cylindrical body that is polarized in the direction of itsaxis and delimited by a pair of opposite flat faces 312 and 313 that arearranged in use parallel to the main planar surfaces of the supportelement 302. Preferably both electrodes of the piezoceramic sensor 304are obtained on the face of the piezoceramic sensor 304 facing theelectric circuit 309. Specific examples of piezoceramic sensors 304 thatmay be used are for instance PIC 255 (Manufacturer: PI Ceramic), PIC 300(Manufacturer: PI Ceramic), PIC 181 (Manufacturer: PI Ceramic), PIC 050(Manufacturer: PI Ceramic), TRS BT200 (Manufacturer: TRS Ceramics),PZT5A1 (Manufacturer: Morgan Advanced Ceramic), PZT5A3 (Manufacturer:Morgan Advanced Ceramic).

In some configurations the piezoceramic sensor 304 has an integralprotective coating 316 being in direct or indirect contact with thesupport element 302 perimetrally to the piezoceramic sensor 304 itself.The integral protective coating 316 is located on the support element302 at the position of the piezoceramic sensor 304.

The integral protective coating 316 can be configured to direct apredetermined part of an external compression force onto an area of thesupport element 302 surrounding said piezoceramic sensor 304.

The integral protective coating 316 has an internal direct or indirectcontact surface 317 uniform with the external surface of thepiezoceramic sensor 304 and a uniform direct or indirect rest base 318on said support element 302. The integral protective coating 316 canhave a generally domed shape.

The integral protective coating 316 is preferably made from aresin-based material, for example polyimide resins, epoxy resins (loadedor not), Bismaleimide resins and Cyanate-Ester resins, but ceramicmaterials that are much harder than resins and suitable for temperaturesabove 350° C. may also be used.

The integral protective coating 316 has electrical and thermalinsulation properties.

The thermal and electrical insulation properties can be conferred by theconstituent material or by a specific layer or an appropriateconstituent element of the integral protective coating 316.

In the illustrated case the integral protective coating 316 comprises amain body made of electrically insulating material within which anelement made from thermally insulating material 319 is located.

The integral protective coating 316 therefore thermally shields thepiezoceramic sensor 304 from external heat in such a way that thepiezoceramic sensor 304 can function under less onerous operatingconditions from the point of view of temperature. Various materials canbe used for such purposes such as the so-called thermal barrier (TBC)materials, or else Yttria or Magnesium stabilized Zirconia in the formof mastics, coatings with ceramic compounds or special paints.

In addition the integral protective coating 316 shields the piezoceramicsensor 304 from external electrical disturbance.

The support element 302 is covered with a thermally insulating layer 320upon which the piezoceramic sensor 304 is arranged.

The thermally insulating layer 320 in particular is interposed betweenthe support element 302 and the electric circuit 309.

Typical materials usable for thermal insulating layers 320 are forinstance YSZ (Yittria Stabilized Zirconia), Mullite(Al_(4+2x)Si_(2-2x)O_(10-x)), α-phase Al₂O₃ in conjunction with YSZ,CeO₂+YSZ, Rare-earth zirconates like La₂Zr₂O₇, Rare earth oxides likeLa₂O₃, Nb₂O₅, Pr₂O₃, CeO₂, Metal-Glass Composites.

The signal transduction device construction method is as follows.

The thermally insulating layer 320 is initially applied to the supportelement 302.

The electrically isolated electric circuit 309 is then integrated withthe support element 302.

The electrically isolated electric circuit 309 is preferably constructedby means of the screen printing technique.

A lower screen printed layer 9A made from an electrically insulatingmaterial is first deposited onto the thermally insulating layer 320, anintermediate screen printed layer 9B made from an electricallyconductive material is then deposited onto the lower screen printedlayer 9A, thus defining the actual electrical circuit itself, an upperscreen printed layer 9C made from an electrically insulating material isthen deposited onto the intermediate screen printed layer 9B whichleaves the contacts uncovered for the electrical connection of thepiezoceramic sensor 304.

The insulating layers 9A, 9C consist, for example, of a base made ofalumina/graphite particles (or a silicate matrix) optionally immersed ina matrix of a polymeric nature (preferably polyimide), while theconductive layer 9B consists of silver or palladium screen printingpastes.

The sensor is then integrated being electrically and mechanicallyconnected to the electrical contacts of the electric circuit 309.

The piezoceramic sensor 304 is permanently connected by means of its twoelectrodes to the respective contacts by means of a layer 325 composedof welding paste which is electrically conductive at high temperature.In practical terms, once the electrical circuit 9 has been formed, thishigh temperature welding paste layer is applied to the area of thecontacts and/or of the electrodes, after which the sensor is positionedby matching its two electrodes with the counterpart contacts provided bythe electrical circuit 309. Finally the assembly is cured typically ataround 200° C. depending upon and in accordance with the specificationsof the welding paste used, which is preferably composed of silver as thebase element of the electrically conductive component. In principle,depending upon the choice of welding paste, temperatures in the order of800° C. can be reached.

At this point the sensor 304 is coated with the related protectiveelement 316 for example by means of the dripping of material at standardpressure and moderate temperatures of less than 200° C.

With particular reference to FIGS. 22A, 22B and 22C, a method to applythe protective element 316 to the piezoelectric sensor is illustrated insteps 370, 372, 374. The resin for the protective element 316 isdeposited by a dispenser for resin material, preferably with anautomatic dispenser for resins with a low level of thixotropy Dam & Filltechnique. A ring of a sacrificial thixotropy resin can be made firstaround the sensor in order to build a kind of dam to enclose the resinused for making the protective element 316, as shown in step 370 of FIG.22A. Then, the material for protective element 316 is used to fill upthe dam in order to cover the sensor, as shown in step 372 of FIG. 22B.Multiple layers of material may be overlaid to form the protectiveelement 316, as shown in step 374 of FIG. 22C.

The signal transduction device thus conceived is capable of operating inextreme environmental conditions thanks to its special constructionwhich ensures suitable thermal and electrical insulation and thatguarantees the integrity of the piezoceramic sensor, which is suitablyprotected by its coating, said coating being capable of deflecting atleast part of the external compression forces towards the area of thesupport element surrounding the piezoceramic sensor.

The applications of the signal transduction device thus conceived anddescribed above can be extended to all fields of technology where aconventional piezoelectric transduction device may not function due toprohibitive environmental boundary conditions.

Piezoelectric Sensor Conditioning Circuits and Electrical Systems forGenerating Brake Pad Data

In certain implementations herein, an electrical system for generatingbrake pad data of a vehicle is provided. The electrical system caninclude a piezoelectric sensor that generates a sensor signal, a passiveconditioning stage that generates an analog conditioned signal based onconditioning the sensor signal, an active conditioning stage thatprocesses the analog conditioned signal to generate an analog outputsignal, and a control unit that processes the analog output signal togenerate brake pad data that includes a digital representation of thesensor signal.

Accordingly, a sensor signal from a piezoelectric sensor, such as apiezoceramic sensor, is processed using analog circuitry that is dividedor partitioned into multiple stages that are physically separated fromone another. The passive conditioning stage generates the analogconditioned signal based on conditioning the sensor signal using passiveelectronic components, such as resistors and/or capacitors.Additionally, the active conditioning stage generates an analog outputsignal based on processing the analog conditioned signal.

In certain implementations, the passive conditioning stage includes aresistor electrically connected in parallel with the piezoelectricsensor. For example, the resistor can include a first end electricallyconnected to a first terminal of the piezoelectric sensor and a secondend electrically connected to a second terminal of the piezoelectricsensor and to ground. In one embodiment, the resistor can have aresistance in the range of about 1 MΩ to about 50 MΩ, for instance, 10MΩ. However, other resistance values are possible, including, forexample, resistance values that depend on application, implementation,and/or a type of sensor. In one embodiment, the analog conditionedsignal is substantially proportional to a time derivative of a chargestored in the piezoelectric sensor.

The passive conditioning stage can be placed in a relatively closevicinity to the piezoelectric sensor. In a first example, the passiveconditioning stage is integrated into a backplate of the sensorizedbrake pad. For instance, a resistor can be screen printed andelectrically connected to a pair of electrodes or terminals of thepiezoelectric sensor. In a second example, the passive conditioningstage is integrated into a connector of the sensorized brake pad,including, for instance a flying or fixed part of the connector. In athird example, the passive conditioning stage is integrated into acable. In one embodiment, the passive conditioning stage is integratedin a portion of the cable that is within about 10 cm of the sensorizedbrake pad.

The active conditioning stage can be implemented in a wide variety ofways. In certain implementations, the active conditioning stage includesone or more analog buffers, which can non-inverting, inverting, or acombination thereof. In one embodiment, the analog output signal fromthe active conditioning stage is substantially proportional to a timederivative of a charge stored in the piezoelectric sensor.

The active conditioning stage is separated from the passive conditioningstage to increase the robustness of the electrical system to high heatoperating conditions. In certain implementations, the activeconditioning stage is positioned at least about 2 cm from the passiveconditioning stage. However, other amounts of separation are possible.By separating the active conditioning stage from the passiveconditioning stage, heat-sensitive active circuitry, such as transistors(for instance, metal oxide semiconductor transistors), can be thermallydecoupled from high heat generating components of the sensorized brakepad. Accordingly, the active conditioning stage can operate in a lowertemperature environment (for instance, less than about 125° C.) relativeto the passive conditioning stage, and thus the active conditioningstage can exhibit a slower rate of thermal aging.

Although it can be desirable from a standpoint of signal processing toplace the active conditioning stage relatively close to a piezoelectricsensor, positioning the active conditioning stage in close proximity tothe piezoelectric sensor can result in the active conditioning stagebeing exposed to a relatively large amount of heat. In certainimplementations, an active conditioning stage is integrated with acable. In other implementations, an active conditioning stage isintegrated with a connector, such as on a flying part. By increasing adistance between the active conditioning stage and the piezoelectricsensor, thermal decoupling increases and the temperature of the activeconditioning stage can be lowered during operation of the brake pad. Incertain implementations, one or more thermal barrier materials areincluded in a flying connector to improve thermal insulation of theactive conditioning stage.

The control unit can implemented in a wide variety of ways. For example,the control unit can include a stability control unit, a tractioncontrol unit, an engine control unit, a brake control unit, or othervehicle control unit. In certain configurations, a sensorized brake padincludes multiple piezoelectric sensors and corresponding passive andactive conditioning stages, and a common control unit processes sensorsignals from the piezoelectric sensors.

In certain implementations, the control unit includes a digitizer thatgenerate a digital signal based on the analog output signal from theactive conditioning stage, a digital integration stage that digitallyintegrates the digital signal to generate a digital integrated signal,and a low frequency noise filtering stage that filters the digitalintegrated signal to generate brake pad data, which includes a digitalrepresentation of the sensor signal from the piezoelectric sensor.

Accordingly, in certain implementations the control unit includes adigitizer and at least two distinct digital processing stages.

The digital integration stage can be implemented as a numericalintegrator that integrates a digital representation of the sensor signalover a time range that includes a start of an application of the brakeand an associated release of the brake (see, for example, FIG. 32).Integrating the sensor signal in this manner avoids a need to integratethe sensor signal using an analog charge amplifier. Thus, the analogintegration circuitry can be removed from the brake pad, which canenhance the robustness of the brake pad's electronics to high heatconditions, thereby providing a brake pad that exhibits superiortemperature performance.

The digital integrated signal can be further processed by the lowfrequency noise filtering stage to remove noise components. Filteringthe digital integrated signal in this manner reduces or eliminates noisecomponents that do not have physical meaning with respect to compressionof the piezoelectric sensor, and aids in avoiding signal drift issues.In contrast, an analog charge amplifier integrates substantially allcharge, including noise-induced charge, and thus can suffer from signaldrift issues.

Accordingly, the teachings herein can be used to enhance accuracy ofprocessing a sensor signal from a piezoelectric sensor. In particular,low frequency components of the sensor signal can be naturally decoupledfrom high frequency noise, since the analog output signal from theactive conditioning stage can correspond to a time derivative of chargestored in the piezoceramic sensor. In certain implementations, a rawsignal in the frequency domain can be about equal to jωQ(ω), where j isthe mathematical imaginary unit, ω is angular frequency, and Q(ω) is afrequency-dependent charge function, as will be described in detailfurther below. In such implementations, the raw signal can be 0 at ω=0and relatively small at low frequencies. Accordingly, the low frequencynoise filtering can be used to remove from the raw signal a component atabout ω=0 that would have otherwise induced a drift on the integrationprocess with time. Accordingly, performing digital integration and lowfrequency noise filtering using a control unit can provide superiorrobustness to signal drift relative to analog integration schemes usinga charge amplifier.

In certain implementations, the sensorized brake pad and the controlunit are connected to one another via a wired connection, such as acable terminated by a connector. In other implementations, thesensorized break pad can include a wireless component, such as atransceiver that wirelessly communicates with the control unit. Forexample, the transceiver and active conditioning stage can be integratedwith a connector, such as on a flying part of the connector, therebyproviding a relatively high amount of thermal decoupling and limitingtemperatures in harsh operating conditions to relative low temperature,for instance, less than about 125° C., and more preferably less thanabout 85° C. The active conditioning stage can be powered in a varietyof ways, including, for example, via a cable from the control unitand/or via a battery of the sensorized brake pad.

The passive conditioning stage is implemented using passive componentsthat have a relatively high tolerance to heat. In one example, a passiveconditioning stage includes passive components, such as surface mountcomponents, that can withstand high temperatures of at least about 200°C., or more preferably, at least about 350° C.

In certain implementations, the passive components are implemented via ascreen printing process applied directly onto the backplate of thesensorized brake pad. However, the passive components can be implementedin other ways. In another example, the passive components areimplemented via screen printing onto a relative thin circuit orsubstrate (for instance, less than about 1 mm, or more preferably, lessthan about 200 μm), which is soldered or otherwise attached to thebackplate. In yet another example, the passive components are integratedon a printed circuit board (PCB), which is integrated into a connectoror cable. In certain configurations, the PCB can be implemented towithstand high temperatures. For instance, a ceramic PCB, such as a PCBincluding alumina, can withstand relatively hot operating environments.However, other implementations are possible. For example, inimplementations with relatively good thermal decoupling, such as whenthe PCB temperature is less than about 200° C. during operation, the PCBcan be implemented using, for instance, FR4.

In implementations using screen printing to integrate the passive analogstage onto the backplate, the screen printing material can be selectedfor compatibility with relative high operating temperatures of, forinstance, up to about 350° C. or more. In one example, the screenprinting material can include a high temperature resin material, such asa resin in a polyimide class, and/or ceramic-based pastes. Additionally,one or more dielectric layers (preferably at least three layers of, forinstance, resin and/or ceramic) can be applied directly onto thebackplate. Additionally, a conductive material can be applied over theone or more dielectric layers to implement a passive analog stage of adesired circuit topology and connectivity. Additionally, at least onedielectric layer (and preferably at least two layers of, for instance,resin and/or ceramic) can be applied over the conductive material toprovide electrical insulation. In one embodiment, the insulationwithstands at least about 1500 volts DC to ground.

In certain implementations, the passive conditioning stage operatesusing a shared ground with respect to the piezoelectric sensor.Implementing the passive conditioning stage in this manner reduces oreliminates current loops. In certain implementations, the ground of thepiezoelectric sensor and passive conditioning stage is provided from thecontrol unit via a cable. For instance, as discussed above, in certainconfigurations the passive conditioning stage can be screen printed ontothe backplate, and electrically insulated therefrom. Although parasiticcapacitance can be present, the relatively high level of insulation canhinder formation of current loops.

In multiple-sensor implementations, ground loops can be reduced by usinga common ground for each of the multiple sensors. In certainimplementations, the ground of the control unit is connected to avehicle ground, for instance, directly or via a resistor of, forexample, 1 kΩ.

In certain implementations, the active conditioning stage includes oneor more operational amplifiers connected as buffers to process aconditioned signal from a passive conditioning stage. Using operationalamplifiers or other high input impedance circuits in the activeconditioning stage aids in providing signal decoupling and reduces noiseand/or current loops. For example, certain piezoelectric sensors, suchas piezoceramic sensors, can have relatively high impedance, andimplementing the active conditioning stage with high input impedancereduces a risk of current loops that degrade the reliability of brakepad measurements.

Accordingly, the teachings herein can be used to provide a conditionerand a method for conditioning the electrical signal coming from at leastone piezoelectric sensor of a braking device for vehicles, and a brakingdevice for vehicles that integrates such a conditioner for conditioningthe electrical signal.

In certain implementations, a brake pad for vehicles can include ametallic support element, a block of friction material supported by themetallic support element, and one or more piezoceramic sensors supportedby the metallic support element and interposed between the block offriction material and the metallic support element.

During use of the piezoceramic sensors, when subjected to mechanicalstress due to the interaction between the block of friction material andthe disc bound to the wheel, the sensors generate electrical signals.The electrical signals are conditioned for the detection and/or for theprediction of numerous phenomena, including, for example, an abnormalconsumption of the brake pads, due to said brake pads “touching” thedisc even when the brake is not actuated, for example due to pooralignment of the brake calipers, or rather noise, vibration and unwantedscreeching during braking.

Electrical signals from piezoelectric sensors can be conditioning bymeans of charge amplifiers that are located near to the piezoelectricsensors. However, very high operating temperatures, such as temperaturesgreater than about 350° C., damage such charge amplifiers. There is,among other things, the inconvenience of having to apply effectiveshielding against external disturbances due to the very high impedanceof the piezoelectric sensors. The implementation of proper screening ishowever both complex and costly. Also the electronic circuitry requiredfor a charge amplifier is usually complex and requires electricalcircuits and therefore circuit boards of a certain size. This factimplies appropriate installation spaces that may not be readilyavailable near to the brake pads.

For example, FIG. 23 is a schematic diagram of an active conditioningcircuit including a charge amplifier, where a piezoelectric sensor isindicated with A. The active conditioning circuit can consist of one ormore high-gain voltage amplifiers (inverting configuration) with metaloxide semiconductor (MOS) transistor inputs. In such a case, due to thepresence within the circuit of a capacitor, the charge amplifier acts asa charge integrator by means of balancing the variations in the chargecoming from the piezoelectric sensor due to the mechanical stresses towhich it is subject, by inducing equal variations in charge, butopposite in sign, on the measurement capacitor, and providing at theoutput of the conditioning circuit a voltage Vout that can be measuredby a capture board. The charge amplifier has a relatively largebandwidth. For the configuration shown in FIG. 23, a cut-off frequencyat low frequencies can be given by the equation below:

$v_{L} = \frac{1}{2{\pi \left( {1 + \frac{R_{1}}{R_{2}}} \right)}R_{f}C_{f}}$

By means of a modification to the ratio of the resistors R1 to R2, thecut-off frequency can be set to a desired value without using resistancevalues for Rf that are too large and that could lead to saturationproblems, or else too great an offset due to large bias current withinthe charge amplifier itself. In addition, the capacitance Cf can be keptsufficiently low to maintain the high sensitivity of the circuit duringthe variations in charge at the piezoelectric sensor. However, achallenging technical problem with respect to the configuration of FIG.23 can be simultaneously meeting multiple technical specifications. Forexample, it can be difficult to implement a charge amplifier that has,for instance, a cut-off frequency close to 1 Hz while at the same timemaintaining high stability with high sensitivity and low drift over longperiods of time.

In certain implementations, a braking device for a vehicle generatessignals of interest ranging from very low frequencies (1-2 Hz) up tohigher frequency values (20-30 kHz), thus presenting very difficult tosolve technical issues due to the high demand for accuracy and theabsence of drifting over time periods of even several minutes.

The teachings herein can be used to provide a system for theconditioning of the electrical signal coming from at least onepiezoceramic sensor of a braking device for vehicles that exhibits highstability, sensitivity and measurement accuracy in the absence ofdrifting over long periods of time. The teachings herein can alsoprovide a conditioner for conditioning the electrical signal coming fromat least one piezoceramic sensor of a braking device for vehicles thatis economical, compact and resistant to high temperatures to beinstalled in the region of the sensor itself.

This and other purposes are fulfilled by a braking device for vehicles,comprising a support element, a block of friction material supported bythe support element, and electrically isolated electrical circuit thathas at least one piezoceramic sensor and is interposed between the blockof friction material and the support element, characterized in that itcomprises a conditioner for conditioning the electrical signal of saidat least one piezoceramic sensor comprising a passive analog stage formeasurement and a processing digital stage for processing the outputsignal from said passive analog stage, said passive analog stagecomprises a charge derivative electrical circuit and in that saidprocessing digital stage is a stage for digitization and integration ofthe output signal from said passive analog stage, said passive analogstage for measurement is integrated in said support element or in anelectric cable connector of said electrical circuit for transferringsaid electrical signal or in said cable, said processing digital stagebeing remotely located from said passive analog stage.

In certain embodiments, the passive analog stage for measurementincludes a charge derivative electrical circuit, and the digital stagedigitizes the output signal from the analog stage and integrates thesame.

In certain embodiments, the charge derivative circuit includes aresistor that is placed in parallel with the piezoceramic sensor. Incertain configurations, an AC coupling capacitor is included between thepiezoceramic sensor and said resistor.

In another aspect, a braking device for vehicles includes a supportelement, a block of friction material supported by the support element,an electrically isolated electrical circuit that has at least onepiezoceramic sensor and is interposed between the block of frictionmaterial and the support element, characterized in that it comprises aconditioner for conditioning the electrical signal of said at least onepiezoceramic sensor comprising a passive analog stage for measurementand a digital stage for processing the output signal from said passiveanalog stage.

In certain embodiments, the passive analog stage for measurement isintegrated or in said support element, or in said support elementthrough a cable connector of said electrical circuit, or in said cable.

In another aspect, a method for conditioning an electrical signal comingfrom at least one piezoceramic sensor integrated into a braking deviceof a vehicle is provided. The method includes carrying out theconditioning of the electrical signal using a passive analog stage formeasuring the electrical signal and using a subsequent digital stage forprocessing the output signal from said passive analog stage.

FIG. 26 schematically shows a sensorized brake pad 401 according to oneembodiment. The sensorized braking pad 401 can be included in a vehiclebraking system. Although specific reference will be made to the brakepad 401, the teachings herein are applicable to other implementations,including, but not limited to a brake shoe of a drum brake.

The illustrated brake pad 401 includes a support element 402, preferablybut not necessarily metallic, and known as a “backplate,” a block offriction material 403 supported by said support element 402, optionallya damping underlayer applied to the block of friction material 403, anelectrically isolated electrical circuit 404 supported by the supportelement 402 and interposed between the latter and the block of frictionmaterial.

The free surface of the block of friction material 403 is intended inuse to come into sliding contact with the element to be braked,typically the brake disc of a vehicle wheel.

The electrical circuit 404 has one or more piezoceramic sensors 405 thatare able to detect the forces that are exchanged in use during thecontact between the pad 401 and the element to be braked as a result oftheir inherent ability to emit an electrical signal when subjected to amechanical stress.

The electrical circuit 404 collects the electrical signal, which isgenerated without the need for an electrical power supply, from thepiezoceramic sensors 405 when they are subjected to a mechanical stress.

The brake pad 401 also includes a connector 406 which is preferablyintegrated into the support element 402 to which an electric cable 400(see, for example, FIG. 29) is connected or connectable for transferringthe electrical signal.

As described further below, a wireless communication channel fortransferring the electrical signal may be envisaged as well accordingother embodiments of the invention.

The braking device includes a conditioner for conditioning theelectrical signal coming from the piezoceramic sensors 405 includingadvantageously a passive analog stage for measuring the signal and adigital stage for processing the output signal from the analog stage.

The digital stage can include a digitization stage for digitizing theanalog output signal from the analog stage and an integration stage forintegrating the digitized signal.

The passive components used for the analog stage are robust and compactand thus allow for easy integration of the analog stage into the brakingdevice while meeting or exceeding bandwidth performance specifications.

The passive analog stage for measurement can include a charge derivatecircuit having a resistor that is placed in parallel with thepiezoceramic sensor, and can further include an AC coupling capacitorbetween the piezoceramic sensor and the resistor.

FIG. 24 shows one embodiment of a passive conditioning circuit for ananalog stage of a signal conditioner. With reference to FIG. 24, thesignal source S and the capacitor Cp represent a simplified variant ofthe equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric sensor; Ci is a parasiticcapacitance due mainly to the wiring, while R is a resistance placed inparallel with the piezoceramic sensor. The illustrated electricalcircuit transforms the charge signal Q(t) to a voltage signal V(t)(discharge current passing through the resistance R from thepiezoceramic sensor). The electrical circuit can be customized orotherwise implemented to provide a sufficiently large signal to beprocessed by a subsequent digital stage. The illustrated electricalcircuit advantageously has relatively low drifting and is intrinsicallylinked in its operation to the charge accumulated at the piezoceramicsensor, and in particular to its derivative over time. The conditioningcircuit allows the piezoceramic sensor discharge rate to be regulated bymeans of change in the resistance R, but with all the attendantadvantages in terms of robustness and reliability at high temperaturesdue to the fact that it is passive. The analog stage thus implementedoptimizes the response of the sensor and constitutes a natural singlepole high pass filter.

FIG. 25 shows another embodiment of a passive conditioning circuit foran analog stage of a signal conditioner. The passive condition circuitof FIG. 25 is similar to the passive conditioning circuit of FIG. 24,except that the passive condition circuit of FIG. 25 further includes acapacitor Co arranged in series with the resistor R. The response of thecircuit of FIG. 25 is similar to that of the circuit of FIG. 24, exceptthat the circuit of FIG. 25 includes another first order pole at thefrequency 1/(R*Co). Including the capacitor Co reduces or eliminatesfrequency components below this value, and in particular DC components.By appropriately selecting values of R and Co, a desired low cut-offfrequency can be obtained. In one example, the low cut-off frequency isselected to be less than 10 Hz, for example, about 2 Hz.

The circuit can exhibit a relatively flat frequency response above thecut-off frequency, and thus provides relatively little distortion abovethe cut-off frequency, which, among other things, can be controlled to adesired value by choosing a suitable value for the resistance R. Incertain implementations, the resistance R is in the order of 1-20 MΩ,and is coupled to a piezoceramic sensor of around 2-3 nF of capacitance,such that a cut-off frequency of 1-10 Hz is provided. This range ofcut-off frequencies can retain substantially all of the most importantinformation relating to the braking dynamics, while maintainingsufficiently high signal intensity in terms of dynamic range to bedetectable.

With reference to FIGS. 24 and 25, the illustrated conditioning circuitsare compact and passive, and are therefore compatible with relativelysimple integration with the brake pad. Furthermore, these configurationsdirectly provide an amplified voltage signal.

In this way, a transformation of the signal from current to voltage asclose as possible to the current source itself (the piezoceramic sensor)contributes significantly to reducing the impact of externaldisturbances (and increases the signal-to-noise ratio), which is afactor of merit of high importance for conditioning circuits for highimpedance sensors, such as piezoceramic sensors. In this respect, afurther contribution may be provided by the adding, for both of theconditioning circuit examples above, a buffer or other activeconditioning stage that is located not too far from the passiveconditioning circuit in order to decouple the disturbances coming fromthe stages of the signal conditioner.

In particular the buffer decouples the disturbances noise contributionfrom the cable and from the connector and contributes to immunity fromexternal electromagnetic interference.

The conditioning circuit, being completely passive, is suitable forbeing integrated in the immediate vicinity of the piezoceramic sensor,with the result of minimizing external disturbances.

In particular the passive conditioning circuit can be integrateddirectly onto the support element 402. In one example, a specialmechanical extension of the mechanical support element 402 could beincluded which would be thermally decoupled from the block of frictionmaterial 403, where the passive conditioning circuit is integrated bymeans of a PCB electrical circuit or by screen printing it onto thesupport element 402.

In another example, the passive conditioning circuit can be integratedinto the support element through the connector. Such a configuration isthermally decoupled with respect to the brake pad 401. In practicalterms the integration of the passive conditioning circuit is achieved byadding a small PCB to the connector.

In another example, the passive conditioning circuit can be integratedexternally the support element, but in the immediate vicinity of theconnector itself, for instance by adding a small PCB to the electriccable connectable to the brake pad 401 for transferring the electricalsignal.

Coming to the discussion and analysis of the signals associated with theelectrical conditioning circuits, reference will be made to FIG. 24. Theconditioning circuit of FIG. 25 can produce similar types of signals interms of the response of the sensors because the major differences willbe found at low frequencies (i.e. below 2 Hz due for example to the accoupling of the series capacitor) or at high frequencies (well above 20KHz) because of the low pass filtering due to the buffer itself or tothe piezoceramic sensor, which, however, are positioned above 10 kHz incertain implementations, and so do not normally produce seriousdifferences for typical signals with principal components that are wellbelow these frequencies.

In FIG. 24 the capacitor Cp has one electrode that may be held at groundpotential and another electrode which provides the signal. In this waythe charge induced by an external mechanical stress π(t) will induce acharge on the piezoceramic sensor. Due to the fact that the circuit istied to ground by means of the resistance R, the piezoceramic sensorwill discharge relatively quickly. The result will be a time variantvoltage that is seen across the resistance R caused by the piezoceramicsensor discharge current. The external mechanical stress π(t) willtherefore act as an electromotive force, for which reason it is herebyrepresented as a time variant voltage S. Solving the differentialequations of the equivalent circuit with respect to the output voltageV(t), considering that the two parallel capacitances Cp and Ct areequivalent to a single capacitance C=Cp+Ci, and considering that theforce during braking is in the form of a step function, in other wordsit begins at a certain instant tO and ends at a second instant t1, andremains constant during this period and equal to F, we arrive at theequations below, where dp is a constant that depends upon thepiezoceramic sensor.

${V(t)} = {R\frac{dQ}{dt}}$ t < 0  V(t) = 0${0 < t < {t_{1}\mspace{14mu} {V(t)}}} = {{- \frac{d_{p} \cdot F}{C}} \cdot e^{{- {tj}}\; \in C}}$${t \geq {t_{1}\mspace{14mu} {V(t)}}} = {{{- \frac{d_{p} \cdot F}{C}} \cdot e^{{- {tj}} \in C}} + {\frac{d_{p} \cdot F}{C} \cdot e^{{{- {({t - t_{1}})}}I} \in C}}}$

The equation given above for V(t) states that the pressure signal duringbraking and having the previously shown step function form, inducessignals within the chosen circuit in the form of a double peak, onepositive and one negative, that represent the beginning and end of thebraking event. The peak heights will be proportional to the appliedforce F and circuit parameters of the circuit employed. The exponentialdecay of the signal is clearly related to the discharging of thecapacitor which within the circuit represents the piezoceramic sensor.It follows that the dynamic behavior of the sensor can be changed simplyby increasing or decreasing the value of the resistance R. Inparticular, decreasing the value of R will make the circuit responsefaster, but on the other hand will make the amplitude of the responsesmaller due to the increase in the circuit's natural cut-off frequency.From the time dependence of the equivalent circuit it is clear that thedynamics of the sensor connected to the circuit employed for theconditioning will be linked to the derivative over time of the chargeinduced at the sensor itself due to the mechanical stress that thesensor is placed under. This is evident from the form of the frequencydependence of the load itself, which can be given by the equation below,where ω is the angular frequency and π(ω) is the Fourier transform (FFT)of π(t).

${Q(\omega)} = {{- \frac{d_{p} \cdot {\pi (\omega)}}{RC}} \cdot \frac{L}{{j\; \omega} + \frac{1}{RC}}}$

Outside the cut-off frequency region, the charge induced will bedirectly proportional to the current flowing in the circuit.

The response of the sensor over time is the derivative over time of thecharge stored within it and will be dominated by the natural dischargeprocess of the RC circuit associated with the circuit proposed.

Since the passive conditioning circuits of FIGS. 24 and 25 areintrinsically of a derivative nature, and therefore diametricallyopposite to a charge amplifier which is by nature integrative, thedigital stage of the conditioner (such as a control unit) calculates theinformation regarding the charge by means of a numerical integration ofthe signal obtained by the analog stage. The result obtained is directlylinked to the total charge accumulated at the sensor during braking andto the variations at the sensor that are associated with the appliedforces, which will be seen by the sensor in the form of currents flowingin the circuit itself. The numerical integration of the signal thus canrecover the same information that can be obtained with a fullyanalog-based solution provided by an analog charge amplifier.

Accordingly, in certain implementations herein, an electrical system forgenerating break pad data omits an analog charge amplifier in favor ofincluding a hardware analog measurement stage that includes a passiveconditioning circuit, and a subsequent digital stage for thedigitization and integration of the digitized signal.

The integration can be performed in real time in order to promptlyintercept variations in the forces during braking (indicated by thecharge on the sensor), or else it can be performed subsequently.

The integration can be performed numerically using a software device orelse it can be performed by a hardware device, including, but notlimited to, an FPGA, a processor, digital circuitry in CMOS technology,etc.

The signal conditioners disclosed herein operate differently from ananalog charge amplifier. For example, the signal conditioners separatean analog stage from a digital stage, with the digital stage locatedremotely from the analog stage.

This approach gives the advantage of having a much more simplified,compact and passive analog stage rather than the active and complexstage that would result from an analog charge amplifier. Thus, a passivecondition circuit can be miniaturized and/or integrated into brake padswith advantages in terms of cost and/or signal-to-noise ratio (immunityto external disturbances).

Accordingly, the sensor signal conditioning method involves theintegration of the signal coming from a passive “derivative” circuit.The integration is performed in a computational stage which directlyintegrates the appropriately digitized signal that is directlyassociated with the charge on the piezoceramic sensor and therefore theforces acting upon said sensor.

The conditioning circuit is located in proximity to the sensors in orderto intercept and transform the voltage signal without said signal havingto travel too far. Implementing the conditioning circuit in this mannerimproves accuracy and signal-to-noise ratio.

FIG. 27A is a schematic diagram of one embodiment of an electricalsystem 500 for generating brake pad data. The electrical system 500includes a sensorized brake pad 501, a control unit 502, and a cable503.

The illustrated sensorized brake pad 501 includes sensors 511, abackplate 513, and a connector 514. The sensors 511 include a firstpiezoelectric sensor 521 a, a second piezoelectric sensor 521 b, and athird piezoelectric sensor 521 c. Although the illustrated embodimentincludes three piezoelectric sensors, a sensorized brake pad can includemore or fewer sensors.

In the illustrated embodiment, a passive analog front end (AFE) isintegrated on the backplate 513. A passive AFE is also referred toherein as a passive conditioning stage. The illustrated passive AFEincludes a first resistor 522 a in parallel with the first piezoelectricsensor 521 a, a second resistor 522 b in parallel with the secondpiezoelectric sensor 521 b, and a third resistor 522 c in parallel withthe third piezoelectric sensor 521 c. Although one implementation of apassive AFE is shown, other implementations are possible.

In the illustrated embodiment, the cable 503 includes an active AFE 515integrated therein. An active AFE is also referred to herein as anactive conditioning stage. As shown in FIG. 27A, the active AFE 515includes operational amplifiers 523 a-523 c connected as buffers, andused to buffer analog condition signals generated by the passive AFE.Although an embodiment using operational amplifiers is shown, otherimplementations of an active AFE are possible.

The active AFE 515 is powered using a power high supply VDD and a powerlow supply VSS provided by the control unit 502, in this embodiment.Additionally, the control unit 502 provides ground to the sensors 511and to the resistors 522 a-522 c of the passive AFE. As shown in FIG.27A, the ground is also used by the ADCs 524 a-524 c. The groundprovided by the control unit 502 is common to the sensors 511, in thisembodiment.

As shown in FIG. 27A, the control unit 502 includes a digitizer 516, adigital integration stage 517, and a low frequency noise filteringcircuit 518. The digitizer 516 includes analog-to-digital converters(ADCs) 524 a-524 c, in this embodiment. The ADCs 524 a-524 c generatedigitized signals by providing analog-to-digital conversion to thebuffered analog output signals generated by the operational amplifiers523 a-523 c, respectively. The control unit 502 further includes adigital integration stage 517 that integrates the digitized signals fromthe ADCs 524 a-524 c. The integrated digital signals are provided to thelow frequency noise filtering circuit 518, which filters the integrateddigital signals to generate brake pad data that includes a digitalrepresentation of the electrical signals generated by the sensors 511.

In the illustrated embodiment, the passive AFE is integrated with thebackplate 513 of the sensorized brake pad 501, and the active AFE 503 isintegrated with the cable 503.

Additional details of the electrical system 500 can be as describedearlier.

FIG. 27B is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem 530 for generating brake pad data. The electrical system 530includes a sensorized brake pad 531, a control unit 532, and a cable533.

The sensorized brake pad 531 includes sensor(s) 541, a backplate 543,and a connector 544. Additionally, the control unit 532 includes adigitizer 546, a digital integration stage 547, and a low frequencynoise filtering stage 548.

In the illustrated embodiment, the passive AFE 542 is integrated withthe backplate 543 of the sensorized brake pad 531, and the active AFE545 is integrated with the connector 544.

Additional details of the electrical system 530 can be as describedearlier.

FIG. 27C is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem 550 for generating brake pad data. The electrical system 550includes a sensorized brake pad 551, a control unit 552, and a cable533.

The sensorized brake pad 551 includes sensor(s) 541 and a connector 554.Additionally, the control unit 552 includes a digitizer 546, a digitalintegration stage 547, and a low frequency noise filtering stage 548.

In the illustrated embodiment, the passive AFE 542 and the active AFE545 are both integrated with the connector 554. In certainconfigurations, the passive AFE 542 is implemented on a fixed part ofthe connector 554 and the active AFE 545 is implemented on a flying partof the connector 554.

Additional details of the electrical system 550 can be as describedearlier.

FIG. 27D is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem 560 for generating brake pad data. The electrical system 560includes a sensorized brake pad 561, a control unit 562, and a cable563.

The sensorized brake pad 561 includes sensor(s) 541 and a connector 564.Additionally, the control unit 562 includes a digitizer 546, a digitalintegration stage 547, and a low frequency noise filtering stage 548.Furthermore, the cable 563 includes the active AFE 545.

In the illustrated embodiment, the passive AFE 542 is integrated withthe connector 564, and the active AFE 545 is integrated with the cable563.

Additional details of the electrical system 560 can be as describedearlier.

FIG. 27E is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem 570 for generating brake pad data. The electrical system 570includes a sensorized brake pad 571, a control unit 572, and a cable573.

The sensorized brake pad 571 includes sensor(s) 541 and a connector 574.Additionally, the control unit 572 includes a digitizer 546, a digitalintegration stage 547, and a low frequency noise filtering stage 548.Furthermore, the cable 573 includes the passive AFE 542 and the activeAFE 545, which are physically separated from one another to providethermal decoupling.

Additional details of the electrical system 570 can be as describedearlier.

FIG. 27F is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem 580 for generating brake pad data. The electrical system 580includes a sensorized brake pad 581 and a control unit 582.

The sensorized brake pad 581 includes sensor(s) 541, a backplate 543,and a connector 584. The backplate 543 includes the passive AFE 542.Additionally, the connector 584 includes the active AFE 545, a battery586, and a transmitter 585. As shown in FIG. 27F, the battery 586 powersthe active AFE 545 and the transmitter 585.

The control unit 572 includes a receiver 587. The control unit 572 canfurther include a digitizer, a digital integration stage, and a lowfrequency noise filtering stage. In one embodiment, a digitizer isomitted from the control unit 582 in favor of providinganalog-to-digital conversion prior to wireless transmission by thetransmitter 585.

In certain implementations, the connector 584 is not connected to acable. In other implementations, a cable also connected between thesensorized brake pad 581 and the control unit 582 via the connector 584.In one example, the cable can be used to provide ground to the sensor(s)541.

Additional details of the electrical system 580 can be as describedearlier.

FIG. 27G is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of an electricalsystem 590 for generating brake pad data. The electrical system 590includes a sensorized brake pad 591 and a control unit 582.

The sensorized brake pad 591 includes sensor(s) 541 and a connector 595.The connector 585 includes the passive AFE 542, the active AFE 545, thebattery 586, and the transmitter 585.

Additional details of the electrical system 590 can be as describedearlier.

With reference to FIGS. 27A-27G, an electrical sensor from apiezoelectric sensor can be processed by an analog stage and asubsequent digital stage. The analog stage can include a cascade of apassive AFE and an active AFE. Additionally, the digital stage can beimplemented by a control unit, which can be, for example, a stabilitycontrol unit, a traction control unit, a brake control unit, or otherelectronic control unit.

The analog stage and the digital stage may be mutually connected by theelectric cable (FIGS. 27A, 27B, 27C, 27D, 27E) or may have a wirelessmutual connection provided by a transmitter 585 powered by a battery 586installed in the sensorized brake pad and a receiver 587 of the controlunit 582 (FIGS. 27F, 27G). In certain implementations, a sensorizedbrake pad and a control unit each include a transceiver, therebypermitting two-way communications between the sensorized brake pad andthe control unit.

In certain implementations, a passive AFE of the analog stage is placedon or relatively close to a sensorized braking pad.

For example, a passive AFE of the analog stage may be integrated in abackplate (FIGS. 27A, 27B, 27F), in a connector (FIGS. 27C, 27D, 27G),in a cable (FIG. 27E), or in any other suitable location.

A passive AFE of the analog stage includes only passive components (forinstance, a resistor of about 10 MΩ) closed to ground.

In case of wired communication through the cable between the analogstage and the digital stage of the conditioner, the ground of thepiezoelectric sensors may be provided by the cable itself (see forinstance FIG. 27A). In certain implementations, the passive AFE isimplemented using screen printing, and is insulated from the backplate.To reduce or eliminate current loops, the ground can be provided by thecontrol unit and be common to all sensors. In certain implementations,the ground of the control unit is connected to the ground of the vehiclethrough a small resistance of, for instance, about 1 kΩ.

The active AFE includes the above mentioned buffer(s) or other analogprocessing circuitry, and is located in between the passive AFE and thedigital stage.

The passive components of the passive analog stage, when integrated intoa backplate, can use high temperature-resistant screen printingtechniques. In certain implementations, the passive components aredirectly screen printed upon a backplate or screen printed on a thincircuit or a thin substrate (for instance, less than about 1 mm, or morepreferably 100-200 μm), which can be soldered to the backplate. In oneexample, wiring can be directly connected to the flying portion of aconnector by soldering to the pin of the connector or by crimping on thepins. In another example, direct welding can be performed to conductivepads created for this purpose via screen printing on the backplate.

The active AFE can be integrated in a cable (FIGS. 27A, 27D, 27E), aconnector (FIGS. 27B, 27C, 27F, 27G), or in another suitable location.

FIG. 28 shows one embodiment of a braking pad 401. The braking pad 401includes a support element or backplate 402, a block of frictionmaterial 403, an electrical circuit 404 including screen printedconductors, piezoceramic sensors 405, and a connector fixed part 406 a.

FIG. 29 shows one embodiment a portion of a connector and of a cable 400for the braking pad 401 of FIG. 28. As shown in FIG. 29, a connectorflying portion 406 b includes a passive AFE 506 integrated therein. Inthe illustrated embodiment the passive AFE 506 includes resistors R.However, other implementations are possible.

FIG. 30 shows one embodiment of a braking pad 401 with a passive AFE 506integrated in a cable 400.

FIGS. 31A and 31B are perspective views of the cable 400 of FIG. 30.

FIG. 32 is a graph of one example of channel voltage amplitude versustime for a braking event.

The graph of FIG. 32 shows an example of a double peak, one positive andone negative, that represents the beginning and end of the brakingevent. Although one example of channel voltage amplitude versus time isshown, other voltage amplitudes versus time are possible.

Certain Terminology

Terms of orientation used herein, such as “top,” “bottom,” “horizontal,”“vertical,” “longitudinal,” “lateral,” and “end” are used in the contextof the illustrated embodiment. However, the present disclosure shouldnot be limited to the illustrated orientation. Indeed, otherorientations are possible and are within the scope of this disclosure.Terms relating to circular shapes as used herein, such as diameter orradius, should be understood not to require perfect circular structures,but rather should be applied to any suitable structure with across-sectional region that can be measured from side-to-side. Termsrelating to shapes generally, such as “circular” or “cylindrical” or“semi-circular” or “semi-cylindrical” or any related or similar terms,are not required to conform strictly to the mathematical definitions ofcircles or cylinders or other structures, but can encompass structuresthat are reasonably close approximations.

Conditional language, such as “can,” “could,” “might,” or “may,” unlessspecifically stated otherwise, or otherwise understood within thecontext as used, is generally intended to convey that certainembodiments include or do not include, certain features, elements,and/or steps. Thus, such conditional language is not generally intendedto imply that features, elements, and/or steps are in any way requiredfor one or more embodiments.

Conjunctive language, such as the phrase “at least one of X, Y, and Z,”unless specifically stated otherwise, is otherwise understood with thecontext as used in general to convey that an item, term, etc. may beeither X, Y, or Z. Thus, such conjunctive language is not generallyintended to imply that certain embodiments require the presence of atleast one of X, at least one of Y, and at least one of Z.

The terms “approximately,” “about,” and “substantially” as used hereinrepresent an amount close to the stated amount that still performs adesired function or achieves a desired result. For example, in someembodiments, as the context may permit, the terms “approximately”,“about”, and “substantially” may refer to an amount that is within lessthan or equal to 10% of the stated amount. The term “generally” as usedherein represents a value, amount, or characteristic that predominantlyincludes or tends toward a particular value, amount, or characteristic.As an example, in certain embodiments, as the context may permit, theterm “generally parallel” can refer to something that departs fromexactly parallel by less than or equal to 20 degrees.

Unless otherwise explicitly stated, articles such as “a” or “an” shouldgenerally be interpreted to include one or more described items.Accordingly, phrases such as “a device configured to” are intended toinclude one or more recited devices. Such one or more recited devicescan also be collectively configured to carry out the stated recitations.For example, “a device configured to carry out recitations A, B, and C”can include a first device configured to carry out recitation A workingin conjunction with a second device configured to carry out recitationsB and C.

The terms “comprising,” “including,” “having,” and the like aresynonymous and are used inclusively, in an open-ended fashion, and donot exclude additional elements, features, acts, operations, and soforth. Likewise, the terms “some,” “certain,” and the like aresynonymous and are used in an open-ended fashion. Also, the term “or” isused in its inclusive sense (and not in its exclusive sense) so thatwhen used, for example, to connect a list of elements, the term “or”means one, some, or all of the elements in the list.

Overall, the language of the claims is to be interpreted broadly basedon the language employed in the claims. The language of the claims isnot to be limited to the non-exclusive embodiments and examples that areillustrated and described in this disclosure, or that are discussedduring the prosecution of the application.

SUMMARY

Various smart braking devices, systems, and methods have been disclosedin the context of certain embodiments and examples above. However, thisdisclosure extends beyond the specifically disclosed embodiments toother alternative embodiments and/or uses and obvious modifications andequivalents thereof. In particular, while the smart braking devices,systems, and methods has been described in the context of illustrativeembodiments, certain advantages, features, and aspects of the devices,systems, and methods may be realized in a variety of other applications.Various features and aspects of the disclosed embodiments can becombined with or substituted for one another in order to form varyingmodes of the devices, systems, and methods. The scope of this disclosureshould not be limited by the particular disclosed embodiments describedherein.

Additionally, various aspects and features of the embodiments describedcan be practiced separately, combined together, or substituted for oneanother. A variety of combination and subcombinations of the disclosedfeatures and aspects can be made and still fall within the scope of thisdisclosure. Certain features that are described in this disclosure inthe context of separate implementations can also be implemented incombination in a single implementation. Conversely, various featuresthat are described in the context of a single implementation can also beimplemented in multiple implementations separately or in any suitablesubcombination. Although features may be described above as acting incertain combinations, one or more features from a claimed combinationcan, in some cases, be excised from the combination, and the combinationmay be claimed as any subcombination or variation of any subcombination.

Moreover, while operations may be depicted in the drawings or describedin the specification in a particular order, such operations need not beperformed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, and alloperations need not be performed, to achieve the desirable results.Other operations that are not depicted or described can be incorporatedin the example methods and processes. For example, one or moreadditional operations can be performed before, after, simultaneously, orbetween any of the described operations. Further, the operations may berearranged or reordered in other implementations. Also, the separationof various system components in the implementations described aboveshould not be understood as requiring such separation in allimplementations, and it should be understood that the describedcomponents and systems can generally be integrated together in a singleproduct or packaged into multiple products. Additionally, otherimplementations are within the scope of this disclosure.

Some embodiments have been described in connection with the accompanyingdrawings. The figures are drawn to scale, but such scale should not belimiting, since dimensions and proportions other than what are shown arecontemplated and are within the scope of this disclosure. Distances,angles, etc. are merely illustrative and do not necessarily bear anexact relationship to actual dimensions and layout of the devicesillustrated. Components can be added, removed, and/or rearranged.Further, the disclosure herein of any particular feature, aspect,method, property, characteristic, quality, attribute, element, or thelike in connection with various embodiments can be used in all otherembodiments set forth herein. Additionally, any methods described hereinmay be practiced using any device suitable for performing the recitedsteps.

In summary, various embodiments and examples of smart braking systemsand methods, and other systems and methods, have been disclosed.Although the systems and methods have been disclosed in the context ofthose embodiments and examples, this disclosure extends beyond thespecifically disclosed embodiments to other alternative embodimentsand/or other uses of the embodiments, as well as to certainmodifications and equivalents thereof. This disclosure expresslycontemplates that various features and aspects of the disclosedembodiments can be combined with, or substituted for, one another. Thus,the scope of this disclosure should not be limited by the particularembodiments described above, but should be determined only by a fairreading of the claims that follow.

The following is claimed:
 1. A signal transduction device comprising: asupport element; a piezoceramic sensor supported by the support element,the piezoceramic sensor comprising a piezoceramic material; and aprotective element covering a portion of the piezoceramic sensor, theprotective element having an elastic modulus that is less than or equalto an elastic modulus of the piezoceramic material of the piezoceramicsensor, wherein the piezoceramic sensor is enclosed by the protectiveelement and the support element.
 2. The signal transduction deviceaccording to claim 1, wherein the protective element is configured todampen a force applied to the protective element such that a forcereceived by the piezoceramic sensor is less than the force applied tothe protective element.
 3. The signal transduction device according toclaim 1, wherein the protective element comprises a resin-based materialor a ceramic material.
 4. The signal transduction device according toclaim 3, wherein the resin-based material comprises a material selectedfrom polyimide resins, epoxy resins, Bismaleimide resins andCyanate-Ester resins.
 5. The signal transduction device according toclaim 1, wherein the protective element is configured to at least one ofthermally insulate and electrically insulate.